
Class __ LB^„Oii 

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A NEW 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 



. V'*. 



BY 



LEVI SEELEY, Ph.D. 



PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N.J. 



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HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 
31—33—35 West 15 th Street, New York City 



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THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

SEP 5 1903 

Copyright Entry 
CLASS «^ XXo. No 

^77^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY HINDS & NOBLE. 

Entered at Stationers Hall. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 



PREFACE. 



Possibly no feature of the vocation of teaching gives 
the young teacher greater solicitude as he anticipates his 
future work than that of successfully managing his school. 
To do this requires judgment, skill, and tact, together with 
as complete a knowledge of the art of school management 
as he is able to acquire. The teacher's knowledge of sub- 
ject-matter and of general pedagogy may be comprehen- 
sive, and his skill in the details of method may be excellent, 
and yet a complete failure may follow because of his inabil- 
ity to manage children and properly to conduct a school. 
Hence, the teacher who has failed to equip himself in this 
field jeopardizes his success and invites disaster. 

This book is intended chiefly for students in normal 
schools and training classes, and for young teachers who 
have been unable to avail themselves of the privileges of a 
course in a professional school, but who are compelled to 
prepare themselves independently for the work of teaching. 
Hence, I have endeavored to be very explicit, and to em- 
ploy many concrete illustrations drawn from a long experi- 
ence in teaching. Doubtless experienced teachers also 
will find profit in a study of these pages ; not so much 
from a presentation of new material as from a treatment 
which attempts to determine the underlying principles. 
Very often teachers have followed practices — good or bad 
— without knowing why they have done so. Their peda- 



iv PREFACE. 

gogical practices would be far more effective if they were 
to be sure of the ground on which they stand. There is 
a great difference between following a correct practice 
through accident or because others have been known to 
follow it successfully, and in following a practice that is 
based on sound principles. Therefore teachers of long 
experience may be helped to conform the management of 
their schools to sound educational doctrine. Reading cir- 
cles and teachers' clubs also will find an abundance of 
material for discussion. The leading practical questions 
concerning the internal direction of the school are pre- 
sented for their consideration. 

It is very likely that many of the discussions presented 
will be criticised as commonplace. But that which has 
become commonplace to the initiated is novel to the begin- 
ner. After carefully considering every discussion offered, 
I can think of none that I would not have welcomed as a 
young teacher had such been offered to me — unless it be 
some of the subjects that no one will denominate as com- 
monplace. Many of the experiences here related were 
gained at the expense of my pupils, and, at the same time, 
at great cost to me. I would save other young teachers 
from the errors which I made ; hence the freedom with 
which these experiences are detailed. 

But it will be seen that there is also a theory — a philo- 
sophical basis — to every theme treated throughout the 
book, which, I hope, is apparent to all. Therefore less 
attention is paid to devices and plans of managing a school 
than to principles. With certain principles to guide him, 
the teacher will be able to form his own plans and employ 
devices suited to particular situations and adapted to his 
own individuality. 



PREFACE. V 

The experiences here presented are the results of many 
years of school-work in almost every field of pedagogical 
activity. That work began in a district school with sev- 
enty-five pupils of every degree of advancement, and in 
ages ranging from five to twenty-one years — a most ad- 
vantageous place in which to gain experience and acquire 
skill in the management of children. This was succeeded 
by varied positions as principal and superintendent. Fi- 
nally, it has been my privilege to present year after year 
the subject of school management to hundreds of students 
in the normal school. In this latter work the purpose has 
been to give the most practical and concrete presentation 
of the subject so that the young teachers may gain confi- 
dence in their ability to conduct and control a school, andj 
at the same time, possess a correct theory of school man- 
agement. The needs of a teacher in charge of a mixed 
school are held prominently in view throughout this book, 
although teachers in graded schools also will find help 
through the experiences and principles presented. 

A work on school management should consider the char- 
acter of the teacher, school discipline, good order, proper 
habits, correct morals, relation of the school to the com- 
munity, as well as other matters connected with the inter- 
nal affairs of the school, such as promotion, classification 
of the school, the daily program, school incentives, the con- 
ducting of the recitations, relation between principals and 
assistants, school hygiene, etc. In a word, it should, as its 
name implies, deal with the working of the school rather 
than with methods, courses of study, or the philosophy of 
education. This is the view that is held in this treatise. 

It should be mentioned that some of the topics consid- 
ered in my ** Foundations of Education," as well as some 



VI PREFACE. 

of the illustrations employed there, are used in this book. 
If any apology for this is necessary, I may say that some 
of the chapters in *' Foundations " have a direct bearing 
upon school management and therefore could not be 
omitted from this book. Where the illustrations given in 
the earlier book were needed in this, I have not hesitated 
to employ them. It is hoped that the reader of both will 
not find a sameness in the discussions, or that the repeti- 
tions are unprofitable. 

It affords me great pleasure in this connection to express 
my thanks to Superintendent J. W. Carr of Anderson, 
Ind., for his permission to use his course in moral instruc- 
tion in the Appendix ; to Miss Kate D. Stout and Professor 
Frank H. Scobey of the Trenton Normal School, to Su- 
perintendent John Enright of Freehold, N.J., and to Hon. 
Charles J. Baxter, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion, Trenton, N.J., for most valuable advice concerning 
various chapters ; and also to Dr. Elias F. Carr, another 
colleague in the Trenton Normal School, for most pains- 
taking, searching, and judicious criticisms of the whole 
work. To many others who ] / correspondence, conversa- 
tion, or advice have encouraged and assisted me in the 
preparation of this book, I hereby express my grateful 
appreciation. 

L. SEELEY. 

State Normal School, 
Trenton, NJ. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

The Personality of the Teacher i 

I. Introduction. 2. The State and Education. 3. High call- 
ing of the teacher. 4. Qualities that teachers should possess, 

CHAPTER n. 

Preparation and Responsibility of the Teacher 12 

I. Academic training. 2. Professional training. 3. Responsi- 
bility of the teacher, (a) for personal example, (b) for physical 
well-being of pupils, (c) for their moral training, (d) for their in- 
tellectual growth, (e) general responsibility. 4. Rewards of the 
teacher, (a) salary, (b) improvement of his pupils, (c) their suc- 
cess in life, (d) consciousness of duty done. 

CHAPTER HI. 

Preparation for Opening School 25 

I. Securing a position, (a) by correspondence, (b) by personal 
application, (c) by teachers' bureaus, (d) the contract. 2. Enter- 
ing the field, (a) secure boarding-place, (b) study schoolroom and 
appliances, (c) listen to no tattling. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The First Day of School ;^2 

I. Gathering at the school. 2. Opening school. 3. Securing 
names. 4. Seating. 5. Follow the prepared schedule of work. 
6. Employment. 7. Recapitulation. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Daily Schedule of Work 41 

I. The tentative program. 2. Daily lessons. 3. The recess. 
4. The one-session plan. 5. Number of daily recitations. 6. Seat- 
work. 7. Recapitulation. 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

PAGE 

Classification of the School 51 

I. The city school. 2. The country school. 3. Grading in 
German country schools. 4. Advantages of the mixed school. 

5. Advantages of the graded school. 6. The transportation of 
pupils. 7. How to grade. 8. A three-grade scheme. 

CHAPTER VII. 
School Government 65 

I. Discipline a means to an end. 2. Obedience. 3. Nagging, 
4. Aims at good habits. 5. Rules and how to make them. 

6. Appeal to honor as a means of discipline. 7. Use of moni- 
tors. 8. Keeping control. 9. A rational relation between teach- 
ers and pupils. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Punishment 84 

I. Definition of punishment. 2. Principles governing punish- 
ment. 3. Kinds of punishment, (a) reproof, (b) isolation, (c) with- 
drawal of privileges, (d) withdrawal of confidence, (e) consult 
parents, (f) suspension, (g) expulsion, (h) corporal punishment. 

CHAPTER IX. 
The Treatment of School Evils loi 

I. Carelessness. 2. Laziness. 3. Tardiness. 4. Irregularity 
in attendance. 5, Tale-bearing. 6. Whispering, 7. Lying. 
8. Cheating. 9. Stealing. 10. Impudence. 11. Rebellion. 

CHAPTER X. 

School Virtues 122 

I, Neatness, 2, Accuracy, 3. Silence. 4. Industry. 5. 
Truthfulness. 6. Regard for duty. 7. Politeness. 

CHAPTER XL 
School Morals . 138 

I. Character of the teacher. 2, Importance of moral in- 
struction, 3. How to teach morals, (a) utilize school interests, 
(b) the physical side of the child's life, (c) keep employed, (d) use 
of daily incidents, (e) use of environment, (f) select lessons from 
literature and history, (g) morals at recess, (h) children to be 
helpful. 



CONTENTS. ix 

CHAPTER XII. 



PAGE 



Cautions to Teachers 

I. Young teachers need help. 2, Never use sarcasm. 3. Avoid 
threatening and scolding. 4. Be truthful. 5. Do not be too 
quick in condemning a chil4. 6. When to give and when to 
withhold assistance. 7. Treatment of the dullard. 8. Do not 
see too much mischief. 9. You are dealing with an immortal 
being. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Incentives to School-work 171 

I. Emulation. 2. Class rank. 3. Prizes. 4. Marking, (a) 
purpose of marking, (b) method suggested. 5. The highest in- 
centive. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Promotion 184 

I. History of. 2. Object of. 3. Frequency of. 4. Importance 
of teacher's judgment. 5. Means of determining fitness. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Examinations, Tests, and Reviews 195 

I. Definition of examination. 2. Characteristics of an examina- 
tion. 3. Educational value of the examination. 4. Character of. 

5. Tests. 6. Reviews. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

The Recitation 207 

I. Use of the term. 2. Assigning the lesson. 3. How to 
study. 4. The art of questioning. 5. Necessity of attention. 

6. Arousing interest. 7. Use of the blackboard. 8. Drill. 
9. Steps of the recitation, (a) preparation, (b) presentation, (c) 
association, (d) recapitulation, (e) application. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Specialization 228 

I. Recent tendencies. 2. Need of general culture. 3. Advan- 
tages of specialization. 4. Specialization below the high school. 
5. The group plan. 6. Specialization in the high school. 7. Dif- 
ferent high-school courses. 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

PAGE 

Duty of the Teacher 241 

I. To his pupils. 2. To the parents, 3. Parents' meetings. 
4. To the community. 5. To the school board. 6. To his pro- 
fession, (a) a good preparation, (b) support pedagogical literature, 
(c) teachers' associations, (d) professional etiquette. 7. To his 
successor. 8. To himself, (a) his health, (b) his growth. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

The Mutual Relations of Superintendent, Principal, and 
Teacher 261 

I. The superintendent, (a) executive duties, (b) as a supervisor, 
(c) his visiting schools, (d) his leadership, (e) teachers' meetings, 
(f) reports from teachers, (g) relation to parents, (h) relation to 
children. 2. The principal. 3. The teachers. 

CHAPTER XX. 

The School Exterior 284 

I. General remarks. 2. The school-grounds, (a) new grounds, 
(b) improvement of old ones. 3. The buildings. 4. Out-build- 
ings. 

CHAPTER XXL 

The School Interior 295 

I. Arrangement of. 2. Size and shape of schoolrooms. 3. 
Seating. 4. Windows, shades, etc. 5. The blackboards. 6. 
Cloak-rooms. 7. Heating and ventilation. 8. Ventilation of old 
buildings. 9. Storeroom. 

APPENDIX. 

Moral Instruction 311 

Course in the Anderson, Ind., Public Schools. 



NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. 

"As the teacher is, so is the school." The greatest 
work that can engage the thought and invite the activity 
of man is the education of the young. Upon the solution 
of this problem, in its broadest sense, depends the future 
welfare of the individual, the home, the community, the 
nation, the world. If man is to reach the highest state of 
personal happiness and usefulness, as well as to contribute 
his greatest possible service to mankind, he must be prop- 
erly educated. If the home is to be a " paradise on earth," 
where husband and wife, parents and children, brothers 
and sisters, mutually help and strengthen one another, it 
will be because education, obtained somewhere and some- 
how, has laid the foundations. If the community is to be 
moral and religious ; if there is to be a high sense of intel- 
lectual and social responsibility ; if pure living, noble ideals, 
honest enterprise, and the advancement of civilization, are 
to be encouraged and fostered, there must be a sound and 
correct educational sentiment. If the evils and dangers of 
political " bossism " and corrupt civil government are to 
be eliminated ; if we are to escape the destruction that has 
befallen other attempts at free government ; if our republic 



2 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

is to stand, we must raise the standard of intelligence and 
morality through universal education. An absolute mon- 
archy may sustain itself by means of its standing armies, 
but a free government can survive only when its citizens, 
upon whom its stability rests, are intelligent and pure. 

The school-teacher is the "high priest of the future." 
Upon him, more than upon any one else, rests the responsi- 
bility of education. Hence his is the greatest work that 
can engage the attention of man. 

In the early history of the race, education was conducted 
by the parents in the home. What the father did, the son 
learned to do. In the primitive life, when men lived in 
tents, obtained food and clothing from the chase or from 
their herds, which they drove from valley to mountain-side 
for pasture ; and where the sum of knowledge was included 
in ability to defend themselves, to care for their flocks, to 
take from Nature's generous bounties what she freely 
offered, the father could easily impart to his son all that he 
needed to know. To strike tent, to elude or successfully 
to cope with an enemy, to care for the herds, to prepare 
their flesh for food, and their skins for clothing and shelter, 
to bring down game, constituted the education of every boy, 
and the father needed no help in teaching his son. He 
" learned to do by doing," a pedagogical principle which 
modern educators are attempting to apply. But when the 
world became more populous, when division of labor was 
necessary, when the demands of civilization multiplied so 
that man did not have so much leisure, and when the child 
had to be taught other things than his father's occupation, 
teachers were needed. These were furnished for many 
centuries from the priesthood, whose work was dominated 
by the Church, and is still in many countries. 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. j 

The State and Education. — As the State more and 
^ore assumes the duty of providing education for all, there 
is a tendency to recognize teaching as an independent pro- 
fession, which, under the State, must take upon itself the 
responsibility of education. If the future citizen is to be 
patriotic, loyal, law-abiding, progressive, ambitious, intelli- 
gent, pure, moral, possessed of lofty ideals, zealous of good 
works, responsive to the demands of duty, conscientious, 
it will be because of the inspiration he receives from his 
teacher. Therefore, to no profession, and to no class of 
men, is committed so high a mission as is committed to the 
school-teacher. 

High Calling of the Teacher. — No one should enter 
upon this work without an appreciation of its great oppor- 
tunity, without a sense of the responsibility involved as a 
leader and instructor of young children. Every teacher 
ought to prefer his to every other calling, ought to have 
the spirit of Froebel, who, in speaking of his first experience 
in the schoolroom, said : " It seemed as if I had found some- 
thing I had never known, but always longed for, always 
missed ; as if my life had at last discovered its native 
element. I felt as happy as the fish in the water, the bird 
in the air." Or that of Pestalozzi, who could not be flattered 
by offers of political preferment, but summed up his soul's 
longing by the words, " I want to be a schoolmaster." Or of 
Thomas Arnold in his work with the boys of Rugby ; or of 
Francis W. Parker, who has been described as a statesman, 
a philosopher, an evangelist, a soldier, and a martyr. ^ With 
the example, inspiration, and spirit of such great teachers 
before him, the young man or woman may well ask the 
question, '* Do I possess the qualities that one must have 



4 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

to be a worthy teacher ? " No one should enter upon the 
profession of teaching, without first asking this question. 

Qualities that the Teacher Should Possess. — i. He 

mttst be gemdnej whole-souled, honest, manly, triLe. — I use 
the pronoun in the generic sense — a womc,in teacher must 
possess these qualities as truly as a man. If the teacher is 
lacking in the qualities that belong to genuine manhood, 
it will not be long before the many watchful eyes that are 
constantly fixed upon him will discover that fact. Children 
cannot be deceived in this respect. There may be lack of 
approved method, there may be dearth of knowledge, there 
may even be weak discipline, but none of these is so fatal 
as a lack of honest manliness. All other deficiencies can 
be corrected, but if genuine character is lacking in a man, 
he should never seek to be a school-teacher. The fearful 
effects of a teacher wanting in genuine moral uprightness, 
who must come into daily contact with young lives, can- 
not be estimated. A manly teacher will lift his pupils 
towards high ideals of manhood. It was the genuineness 
of Thomas Arnold, rather than his methods of instruction, 
that made such a profound impression upon the boys of 
Rugby, and sent them out to be the moral and political 
leaders of England since Arnold's time. One hears little 
about the curriculum or the methods of instruction em- 
ployed, but a great deal about Thomas Arnold, Rugby's 
great and beloved head-master. Some one has said : " It 
will be told in after-days how there was once a heaven- 
born head-master, by name Thomas Arnold, who, ruling at 
Rugby, taught the boys to be good Christians, true gen- 
tlemen, and be merry, mischievous boys still." ** How can 
I hear what you say, when what you are is continually 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. J 

thundering in my ears?" says Emerson. Mary Lyon's 
ideal of education found expression in a consecrated Chris- 
tian womanhood, and it is said that *' so completely did the 
ideal of her own life become the ideal of their lives, that 
most of the girls went out as Christian women. Wherever 
they went they 'carried this spirit. Wherever they taught 
they set up a new Mount Holyoke, a Christian seminary. 
Wherever they married they set up a Christian home." 

Well says Lowell that "the spirit of the teacher is 
more than his method, and that person is the most valu- 
able in the schoolroom who fills it with sweet reasonable- 
ness." Felix Adler remarks : " The personality of the 
master of the school is the chief factor of moral influence 
in it." 

This manly spirit will show itself also in the teacher's 
attitude towards his colaborers. It will prevent him from 
undermining or defaming others, from seeking to displace 
them, from being envious of their success. How much the 
teaching profession is in need of the loyal, hearty, sympa- 
thetic co-operation of its members ! It ought to be im- 
possible to find a teacher who will consent to supplant 
another on any terms or under any circumstances. Only 
when a position is vacant, or it is definitely decided that 
it is to become vacant, should a teacher allow himself to 
be a candidate for the place. This will command the 
respect of school boards and of the community ; it will 
raise teachers in public esteem ; it will ultimately advance 
salaries, and it will prevent injustice being done to worthy 
fellow-workers. Some years ago a gentleman visited my 
school, and in course of conversation said to me : " There 
is a rumor abroad that you do not intend to remain here 
after the close of this year. Is that true.?" I replied 



6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

that it was. " Have you any objection to my applying for 
the position ? " he asked. I informed him that I had 
none. This was true courtesy, and I never forgot it. No 
one possessing the genuine, manly character so essential 
in one to whom is committed such a sacred responsibility 
as that of forming the characters of young children could 
be guilty of impairing the usefulness or injuring the pros- 
pects of another engaged in the same work. 

In another chapter (p. 241), while discussing the teach- 
er's duty to his profession, I shall show by concrete illus- 
trations how a failure to live up to this principle reacts 
upon the one who perpetrates the wrong, and gives him 
the just deserts of his meanness. 

2. He WLtLst possess patience^ sympathy, and love for cJiil- 
d^^eii. — The teacher's work is not a bed of roses ; there are 
trials many, discouragements, difficulties of daily occur- 
rence, and things that disturb the equanimity of the most 
patient. This work would be intolerable to one lacking 
the divine gift of patience. It is not that the children are 
vicious ; most of them are good. If they are not good, it 
is because their past environment or training has been 
bad. But they are mischievous, restless, full of life, and 
they often find it hard to submit to the necessary require- 
ments of school discipline. Here is where the necessity 
for patience is manifest. Even when the children are 
vicious, supreme patience may overcome this evil and win 
them to right conduct. An impatient teacher only aggra- 
vates the evil and arouses a spirit of antagonism and rebel- 
lion. Every teacher will do well to study the life of the 
Great Teacher, who, *'when He was reviled, reviled not 
again," and who showed a spirit of sublimest patience 
under the malicious treatment of His enemies such as the 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. ^ 

world has elsewhere never witnessed. Even with His 
beloved disciples how often did He exercise infinite 
patience ! 

The teacher must also possess love for children. '' I 
hate children, and would never teach a day if I were not 
obliged to," said a teacher, when her superintendent 
criticised her treatment of the pupils. Such a person 
ought never to be a teacher. There must be a love for 
childhood, a sympathy with its interests, a spirit that can 
enter heartily and sincerely into its joys and sorrows. 
I do not mean by this that the teacher should "gush" 
over children, — nothing ultimately disgusts them more 
than that, — but a genuine, natural sympathy that brings 
heart in touch with heart. Possessing this, the teacher 
will not only be able to reach the inner life, the best and 
noblest, that which is the character of the child, but 
through this he will reach the intellectual as well as the 
other sides of the child's development. This love for 
children, seeking to do them good, and finding pleasure 
in their society, must be innate and spontaneous. The 
person who lacks these qualities should never attempt to 
be a teacher. 

3. He should possess a happy disposition. — I have seen 
teachers whose forbidding countenance, whose sour dispo- 
sition, whose hard and rigid manner, whose acerbic charac- 
teristics, chilled the very atmosphere around them, and 
imbittered the life of all who came in contact with them. 
Never enough sunshine could come through the windows 
on even the brightest days to make their schoolroom 
cheerful, and woe to the unfortunate pupils when the sky 
was overclouded ! Instead of sympathy for the sorrows 
of childhood, joy in its happiness, patience with the erring, 



8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

helpful cheer for those in difficulty, stimulating encourage- 
ment for the discouraged, there were sarcasm, querulous 
criticism, fault-finding, and bitterness. What parent would 
knowingly commit a loved and loving child for five hours 
a day to the care of such a teacher ? Whatever be the 
qualities of a teacher, one who lacks ** sunshine in the 
soul," who does not possess the "milk of human kindness," 
should never be allowed to teach. There are days in the 
schoolroom that "try men's souls," dark, forbidding, 
cloudy, heavy, without a gleam of sunshine, when teachers 
must bring to bear the power to rise above external con- 
ditions, and radiate cheerfulness from the abundance of 
gladness and good- will in their own hearts. 

There is a great deal of common sense as well as educa- 
tional philosophy in the attitude of the superintendent who 
insisted that the qualities of disposition that make young 
women sought for as wives, the attractive, winning, happy 
charm about girls that leads the opposite sex to seek them, 
are the characteristics that he required in his teachers. 
Hence, he said: "I do not want teachers that can never 
get married." By this he does not mean that he desires 
to lose his teachers by marriage, but that he wants those 
who possess a happy disposition. With such an endow- 
ment, there is nothing in school-life that should darken or 
imbitter the teacher's life. Indeed, the atmosphere of the 
schoolroom and the contact with innocent young life 
should write benevolence on the brow and kindness in the 
heart, so that the teacher's face should grow lovelier and 
his heart more tender as the years go by. Such was the 
effect upon Pestalozzi, upon Thomas Arnold, upon Norman 
A. Calkins, upon Dr. E. A. Sheldon, and such will be the 
effect upon every teacher who carries a sunny disposition 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. g 

into the schoolroom. The very smile of such a teacher is 
a blessing and a benediction to all who come under his 
influence. 

4. He must be free from any physical impediment that 
would interfere with his usefulness. — Every person who 
enters upon a course of preparation for teaching should 
undergo a physical examination, to determine his ability to 
stand the arduous strain of the teacher's life. For teach- 
ing is arduous, requiring good health and a strong body. 
Not that the teacher is selected for brawn as in the olden 
time, when the large boys felt called upon to challenge 
the schoolmaster's physical strength, in order to test his 
fitness to keep the school, but because he needs good 
health to enable him to discharge his duties without worry 
or weakness. Physical health is essential, so that there 
may be the cheerfulness, the vivacity, the fertility of re- 
source both in method and in discipline, the maintenance 
of interest, and the complete mastery of all school details. 
The teacher should possess reserve strength to rise above 
the petty annoyances that are sure to come, and to pre- 
serve a perfect equanimity of temper and manner. The 
genial disposition, which we have already shown to be es- 
sential, is hard to maintain when the body is weak or dis- 
eased. Strength of body gives consciousness of power, 
both in preserving order and in imparting instruction. 

The State invests capital in the training of teachers, 
and therefore has a right to expect a reasonable term of 
service. More important than this, the person who invests 
far more than the State — his capital, time, energy — has 
a right to expect a sufficient term of service adequately to 
recompense him for the outlay ; and if his health is such 
as to preclude the possibility of this, he should be informed 



lO A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, 

of the fact, and advised to choose some other vocation. 
It is very sad fop one who has thus prepared himself for a 
hfe-work, perhaps by great sacrifices, to find that the ex- 
penditure has been in vain, because of a breakdown in 
health. Therefore great care should be taken by those in 
authority to ascertain the physical condition of all candi- 
dates for normal-school work. Kindness is shown not 
only to them, but justice is done to the children who may 
be their pupils and whom the State is bound to protect. 

5 . He must be capable of thinking and speaking clearly and 
logically. — Doubtless defects in this respect may be largely 
remedied by training, but there are some persons so sadly 
lacking in these qualities that no amount of training can 
overcome the fault. Not that a person must be loqua- 
cious in order to become a teacher, — the work of the 
teacher has a tendency to make him talkative, — but one 
who is diffident or hesitating in either thought, speech, or 
action is not likely to succeed in this field. The power 
to express one's self accurately and clearly is vital to 
the teacher. One must be able not only to see a truth 
clearly, but also must possess the power to impart it to 
others. Logical power, clearness of conception, will enable 
one to grasp the essentials and make them stand out vividly 
that the pupils will be able to seize and hold the lesson. 
This power is most important to one who would become a 
teacher. 

6. He must be an altruist. — It has been said that " to 
be a successful teacher needs first of all a heart yearning 
for the good of others. Let us consider one of the methods 
employed by the Great Teacher, the model of every one 
who would achieve success." The Word tells us of Him 
that "He went about doing good." His ministry did not 



THE PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER. n 

shrink from most menial offices; and His final sacrijEice, that 
,of his own life, was sublimely complete — '^ He gave His 
life for others." It was the noblest example of altruism in 
the history of the world. No person should seek to be a 
teacher whose motive is selfish. There is nothing in the 
vocation to invite a person of such a spirit, but there is 
everything to invite one who seeks the welfare of his fel- 
low-men. No profession offers so wide a field for the prac- 
tice of true benevolence, such an opportunity to be a 
blessing to mankind, such a scope for the exercise of the 
spirit of the Divine Master, so broad and fertile a means 
for doing good, as that of teaching. 

These are the qualities that the teacher must possess, 
and, possessing them, he will not be lacking in the strong 
personality that impresses itself forcibly, effectively, and 
permanently upon the minds and hearts of those whom he 
teaches. To those imbued with the spirit of humble self- 
sacrifice, of sincere consecration, of wide-reaching benevo- 
lence, of lofty patriotism and disinterested altruism, the 
field is open and the invitation hearty. Such teachers are 
wanted everywhere; and to such, there is an abundant and 
satisfying reward. They are indeed to be "the high priests 
of the future." 

In the foregoing, I have sought to present ideal require- 
ments. In the nature of the case, there is a great scarcity 
of teachers who reach the ideal, and therefore a great deal 
of teaching must still be done by those of less capacity. 
Let the standard, however, be high, and let all teachers 
seek to attain to the highest ideals. 



CHAPTER II. 

PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 

In the foregoing chapter we have seen that the teacher 
must possess certain natural qualities. The mere posses- 
sion of these qualities, however, does not make a teacher. 
In the sense that these qualities are innate, the teacher is 
"born." They are fundamental, but in addition to these 
there must be suitable training, and this training is two- 
fold, (i) academic, and {2)professionaL 

Academic Training. — There must first be a sound foun- 
dation of general knowledge. The teacher must know 
many subjects besides those that he is to teach. Educa- 
tion has been defined as the process of cancelling the 
difference in knowledge that exists between two persons, 
between teacher and taught. Now, if the difference is 
slight, the learner has but little to hope for ; while if the 
difference is great, the possibilities that await the learner 
are just so much the greater. Hence if the school trustee 
thinks that his neighbor's daughter, who has merely com- 
pleted the district-school course and secured a third-grade 
certificate, knows enough to teach the little children of the 
school, and will answer as well as the thoroughly equipped 
teacher, he makes a fundamental mistake. In the one 
case there is but little difference between the knowledge 
of the teacher and the pupils, while in the other the possi- 
bilities are immeasurably greater, because the teacher 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER 13 

possesses so much more to give. It is a great mistake 
to think that " any one will do for little children." The 
fact is, the greatest skill and tact and knowledge and 
professional fitness are necessary in teaching young chil- 
dren, because of their immaturity and their inability to 
help themselves. If unskilled teaching is to be employed 
anywhere, let it be with older children who can think and 
act for themselves, and who do not depend so much on 
the teacher. The gravest danger as to method lies in the 
earliest years of the school course, where the children are 
started on their way to an education, and not in the later 
years. For this reason wise school boards and superinten- 
dents are especially careful in the choice of their primary 
teachers. They are careful in regard to their academic 
as well as their professional preparation. 

The least academic training that the teacher should 
possess is that of the full high-school course or its equiva- 
lent. While he may never be called upon to teach some 
of the subjects he has mastered, they furnish a reserve 
force, supply a fund to draw upon, give breadth of out- 
look, and open up a comprehensive view of the whole 
matter of the education of the child. The teacher with a 
broad academic training is less likely to fall into ruts in 
his teaching or his habits of thought. A broader cul- 
ture than the high-school requirement is necessary for 
teachers of the advanced grades. Many high schools 
already demand that their teachers shall be college-bred, 
and doubtless this or its equivalent will soon be a universal 
requirement. Thorough mastery of the academic knowl- 
edge of subjects is absolutely essential, and no methods or 
schoolroom device or superficial tactics can take its place. 
More teachers fail from ignorance of the subject-matter 



H 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



than from any other cause. Many normal schools recog- 
nize the need of an excellent foundation of general culture 
by requiring all candidates for admission to possess a 
training equal to that of a first-class high school.^ 

Professional Training. — But if teaching is a profession, 
academic culture alone will not suffice, even though it be 
a college training, any more than it would suffice for en- 
trance to the profession of law, medicine, or theology. 
There should also be the special, technical training in the 
science and art of teaching, else the teacher must learn 
the technique of his profession by experimentation in the 
schoolroom. This is expensive to the community that 
pays the bills, and far more expensive and dangerous to 
the pupils that are practised upon. As reasonable to put 
a sick child into the hands of a young man without any 
medical training, on the ground that he has graduated 
from college, as to put the school into the hands of a col- 
lege graduate without pedagogical training. Each would 
be obliged to grope in the dark until through experience 
he had learned the art of his calling, and in every case the 
sufferer is the one whom the State is bound to protect, — 
the child. While mistakes may not be so obvious and so 

1 See Fitch's " Lectures on Teaching " and Gordy's " Growth and De- 
velopment of the Normal School Idea," for a further elaboration of this 
argument. 

1. A teacher cannot teach all he knows. 

2. Ample knowledge of a subject makes a teacher free to encourage 
his pupils to ask questions. 

3. Increases his power to illustrate. 

4. Enables him to distinguish the important from the unimportant. 

5. Insures his interest in his subject, and thereby tends to develop inter- 
est in his pupils. 

6. Gives him courage to say, " I don't know." 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER, i ^ 

immediately dangerous in the one case as in the other, the 
evil is none the less real. 

The professional training of the teacher should consist 
of a study of psychology and child study, history of educa- 
tion, methods of teaching, school management, school law 
and school economics, practice-work, and philosophy of 
education. With these two sides of preparation, the 
academic and the professional, the equipment of the teacher 
is completed, and he is prepared to go forth and add to 
these the experience of the schoolroom. This experience 
should then be intelligently directed, and the errors com- 
mitted will be reduced to a minimum. At least all has 
been done for the young teacher that the professional 
school can do, and it now rests with himself to prove his 
fitness by his w^orks. If he makes mistakes, as doubtless 
he will, they will be no more frequent than those of the 
novice in any other profession. The State in its training, 
and the school board in its selection of teachers so pre- 
pared, have guarded well the doors of entrance to this 
vocation. Thus the interests of the pupils have been pro- 
tected, and it may be confidently expected that the mis- 
takes made will be few. 

Responsibility of the Teacher. — No one should enter 
lightly upon the work of teaching. Motives should be 
carefully analyzed, the responsibility weighed, and a deci- 
sion arrived at only after a full understanding of the im- 
portance of the work and belief that the requisite qualities 
are possessed. While it is a great responsibility, it is also 
a great opportunity. I would have every person who 
enters upon the life of a teacher feel that to him it is the 
noblest of all human endeavors, the greatest of all privi- 



1 6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

leges, the most sacred duty that he can undertake. No 
one need ever apologize for being a school-teacher, and 
one who is disposed to do so had better seek some other 
means of gaining a livelihood. Nor should the community 
despise the teacher. Surely parents who think well 
enough of the character and attainments of a person to 
commit their children to his care, closest intimacy, and 
personal contact for daily instruction, should not refuse 
him the intimacy of their social lives and their homes 
merely because he is a school-teacher. The very fact that 
he is the teacher of their children should open their homes 
and their hearts to him, and if he is not worthy of this, he 
is unworthy to occupy such a responsible position. Every 
teacher should be trained in the refinements of polite life 
as well as in the culture that marks the gentleman or the 
lady. Possessing these qualities, there is no just reason 
for his exclusion from the society of the most refined. I 
do not mean that the teacher should be a so-called 
'' society " man ; if there is an excuse for anybody occupy- 
ing such a position, surely there is none for the teacher. 
But he should possess the ease, the genuine politeness, 
the true courtesy, which fit him to associate with the best 
in the community, and the best in the community should 
open their doors to him without reserve, as they would to 
persons in other professions. And so, glorying in his 
work, let every teacher accept the full responsibility of his 
office, and seek to discharge its duties with faithfulness 
and efficiency. 

But what are the responsibilities that fall upon the 
teacher } 

I . The responsibility of personal example. — No one can 
measure the awful consequences of an evil example on the 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER. 



17 



part of the teacher. On the other hand, a teacher of pure 
life, clean habits, noble character, is the most potent, the 
most influential, the most wholesome, the most powerful, 
agency for good in the community. The Christian minis- 
ter would stand next in influencing the lives of children ; 
but the teacher has the advantage of him in the closer 
contact with children, in the hours they are under his care, 
in the greater number that are in his charge. The minis- 
ter's parish is largely limited to the attendants of his own 
church, while the teacher's includes all children of every 
church and of no church. Personal example is more effec- 
tive than sermons or lectures, and vain is the instruction 
in morals if it is not supplemented by the life of the 
teacher. The most potent factor in teaching morals in 
our schools is the personality of the great body of high- 
minded, conscientious, pure-lived. Christian teachers. 
Whatever system of ethical training may be introduced 
in our school courses, nothing can relieve the teacher from 
his personal moral responsibility. Nor does the influence 
of the teacher always cease with morals. Without a parti- 
cle of sectarian instruction, without any direct allusion to 
religious life and practice, by his own belief in sacred 
things, by his spirit of reverence for God, by his silent 
attitude towards religion while in the school, and his active 
participation in its duties out of school, the teacher be- 
comes a mighty force for spiritual teaching. I have 
known teachers whose lives were such that no other man 
in the community exercised so powerful and direct an in- 
fluence for religion as they. And there was not a parent 
of whatever creed that did not feel that the education of 
his children was in safe hands. 

The teacher cannot conceal his true character from the 



1 8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

many searching eyes and inquisitive minds that are con- 
stantly studying him. " Out of the abundance of the 
heart the mouth speaketh ; " and if the heart is overflow- 
ing with good-will or cankered with malice, it will not be 
long before the children discover the truth. When the 
teacher has secured the confidence of his pupils, his code 
of morals will become their code, his ideas of life will be- 
come their ideas. I knew a young principal whose per- 
sonality was so strong that his hold upon his pupils, and 
through them upon the community, became so great that 
for years he was the natural leader of every movement 
looking to the upbuilding of the village. It was said of 
him, *' The young people of H base their ethical con- 
ceptions upon what Mr. B. thinks is right." When a 
teacher wins such a place, a most solemn responsibility 
rests upon him to set a right example, live a right life, 
and think right thoughts. 

2. Responsibility for the physical well-being of his 
pupils. — This question is discussed in the chapter on 
" Duty of the Teacher " (p. 241). It is sufficient here to 
remark that for several hours a day the child is committed 
to the care of the teacher, who must not forget that proper 
education includes also the physical well-being of his 
charges. The teacher is responsible for the hygienic con- 
ditions of the schoolroom, — the maintenance of good venti- 
lation, correct temperature, right seating, guarding against 
draughts and exposure, watchfulness as to the condition of 
the clothing in wet weather, and general oversight of the 
health. No system of ventilation has been devised that 
eliminates the personal attention of the teacher. Only 
when the children are in perfect health can school duties 
be fully performed, and to secure this, systematic physical 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER, jn 

training should be a part of the school course. This training 
will tend to correct deformities of the body, shambling gait, 
awkwardness of movement, and to bring all parts of the 
body under the absolute control of the will, which Rosen- 
kranz defines as the object of physical culture. 

3. Responsibility for the inoral training of his pn- 
pils. — In his eagerness to further the intellectual life of 
the child, the teacher must not neglect his moral develop- 
ment. Teachers are sometimes so bound to their daily 
routine, to the carrying out of all the program, that they 
will not take time to ferret out and show the enormity of a 
lie. There are times when the supreme duty of the teacher 
is to stop all other work and give a lesson in morals. A 
pedantic adherence to the daily routine when a gross evil 
has been committed has a tendency to create in the minds 
of the children indifference to moral questions. They are 
the most vital and important element of all school work, 
and upon this point there should be no doubt left in the 
minds of the pupils. While the teacher alone is not respon- 
sible for the moral training of the children, — the home, 
the community, the State, the Church, have their respect- 
ive parts to perform, — it must not be forgotten that with 
many children the school is the most potent factor in 
establishing moral habits and moral ideals.^ The other 
elements in the child's education may be vicious or ineffect- 
ive ; therefore the school, with its daily, direct, intelligent, 
and sympathetic contact, must undertake to supply the 
deficiencies in other agencies, and establish ethical prin- 
ciples and habits in the child. Many a child is saved from 
a life of degradation through the direct influence of a con- 

1 See "Foundations of Education," p. 172, Chapter on "Who are 
responsible for the education of tlae child ? " 



20 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

secrated teacher who appreciates his opportunity in the 
moral work of the schoolroom.^ 

4. Responsibility for the intellectual growth of the 
pupils. — The teacher is an educational expert, and as such 
should know better than any one else the kind of mental 
food that the children need. Hence the course of study, 
the arrangement of the daily program, the classification, 
the amount of work given whether in school or at home, 
should be left to him. Through his professional knowl- 
edge, his interest in his work and his power to interest 
children, his methods of instruction, his comprehensive 
view of the whole field of education, he is fitted to advise 
as well as to teach his pupils. He should be able to stimu- 
late them to intellectual activity, and awaken a zeal for 
knowledge. School exercises must not be merely a per- 
functory following of the daily routine of lessons, the call- 
ing of the school on time, the passing and teaching of the 
classes, and the dismissal at the close of the day. They 
must be full of intellectual vitality, create a hunger for 
knowledge, and foster an eager longing for the truth. 
The teacher is the central figure in bringing about such 
ideal conditions, and if they are not realized he should be 
held accountable. Examinations, monthly reports, promo- 
tions, may be used to inform parents of the progress of 
their children and the efficiency of the school, but the 
best and final test is the interest manifested by the pupils 
in their studies and their school. 

5. General responsibility. — Besides these phases of 
specific responsibility on the part of the teacher, he owes 
general responsibility to the community, to the school 

1 The reader is referred for further treatment of this subject to the 
chapter on " Morals of the School," p. — 138. 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER. 21 

board, to his profession, and to himself. Each of these is 
discussed in the following chapter, to which reference is 
here made. 

Rewards of the Teacher. — With all of these natural and 
acquired attainments, and with the great responsibilities of 
the office, it is no light matter to become a school-teacher. 
When one thinks of the hard work, the self-sacrifice, the 
consecration, one may seriously ask, *' Does it pay?" It 
certainly does for those who possess the qualifications which 
I have tried to show to be essential. There are rich and 
certain rewards which in the end fully compensate for 
the investment. Let us look at these rewards. 

I. The salary. — Surely, if ever it is true that "the 
laborer is worthy of his hire," it is true with the teacher. 
In general his is the poorest paid of any vocation requiring 
so thorough a preparation, that is so exacting in its de- 
mands, so exhausting of strength, so wearing upon the 
vitality, so isolating from the ordinary opportunities of 
accumulating a competence. The teacher's life and duties 
unfit him for the sharp competition of business, and his 
exclusion from the ordinary pursuits of men prevents him 
from knowing how to invest wisely his hard-earned and 
slowly accumulated savings. The average salary of men 
teachers throughout the land is less than fifty dollars a 
month, and that of women less than forty dollars. But 
his salary is a just reward, and no teacher need con- 
sider himself mercenary because he looks forward with 
pleasure to pay-day. I have shown elsewhere (p. 28) that 
in making the contract it is one's duty to secure the best 
possible terms, but when once engaged it is incumbent 
upon him to teach according to his fullest ability, and not 



22 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

according to the amount received. The teacher is entitled 
to the necessities, and at least some of the comforts, of life, 
and therefore his salary is a just reward. 

2. Imp7vvenie7it of his pupils a reward. — It is a great 
joy to see children grow, to witness their development in 
physical, intellectual, and moral beauty. A girl in a board- 
ing-school had recently undergone an operation which left 
her right arm practically helpless. She was put under the 
care of an intelligent teacher of physical culture, and after 
three months of work I was called to witness the improve- 
ment that had been made. She was able to carry her 
arm entirely over her head, having regained almost natural 
control of it. I could scarcely keep back the tears of glad- 
ness as I said to her, "Delia, does your father know of 
this ? " " No," she said, " I have kept this as a surprise for 
him when I go home for Christmas vacation." " You could 
not bring him greater happiness than this," said I. Surely 
this remarkable result could not fail to bring joy to the 
teacher who had rescued this young life from a sad de- 
formity, — a joy which later years could never efface. 
Like opportunities come to every observant teacher — the 
straightening of a deformed body, the securing of glasses 
for defective eyes, the correction of some weakness — 
whereby a child may be relieved from a life-burden, and 
in after-years he may rise up to call his teacher blessed. 

Then the joy of witnessing intellectual growth, in 
joining in the triumph of the child who has mastered 
a problem or gained a victory ! It is keenest delight to 
the teacher to find that his pupils can do to-day what they 
could not do yesterday, to see them grow and expand 
under his magic touch. Still further, through his kindly 
encouragement and example the quick-tempered lad gains 



PREPARATION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER. 



23 



self-control ; the selfish becomes unselfish ; the vulgar, 
refined ; the hateful, loving ; the lazy, diligent ; the violent, 
gentle ; the false, true ; the insubordinate, obedient. Thus 
in the very life of the school the teacher is daily reaping 
rich rewards for his labor of love. These are the bright 
spots in the life of the teacher, and they perhaps more 
than anything else make it impossible for him to give up 
this work for any other employment, when once he has 
entered upon it. 

3. Success of Jiis piLpils in life a reward. — '^ Do you 
know Mr. E. }'' asked a successful business man and lead- 
ing citizen. " Yes, I know him ; but why } " I inquired. 
"Well, he was my old teacher," said he, "and I owe all 
I am to him." I took occasion to tell Mr. E. of this con- 
versation not long after, and as tears filled his eyes, he 
said, " Did he tell you that } Then I have not lived in 
vain." Alexander the Great loved and revered his old 
teacher, Aristotle, as much as his own father, and for 
many years was guided by the precepts which his revered 
master had taught him. One of the greatest satisfactions 
that can come to an old teacher is to note the prosperity 
of his former pupils, some far more successful perhaps 
than he, and to be conscious that in some measure he has 
contributed to their success. "These are my boys," he 
proudly says, and justly may he claim them as his. I 
once met an old German schoolmaster who had passed his 
eightieth birthday, and had retired on a pension to spend 
the remainder of his days among his people, three genera- 
tions of whom he had taught. Almost every person living 
in the village had been in his school, and it was delightful 
to witness the respect and affection with which he was 
everywhere greeted. " Herr Cantor Grossmann " was 



24 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

welcome at every gathering, and his advice was still 
sought by young and old alike. Thus in the ripeness of 
his declining years he lived among his " children " until he 
entered upon his greater reward. Rich memories of 
bygone days, of lives inspired, of encouragement given, 
of ambitions awakened, which have found fruition in the 
noble lives of men and women, are surely a great reward to 
the teacher when the feebleness of old age creeps upon 
him. Honorable and just is that community that shows 
its appreciation of such men and women by allowing no 
anxious thought to disturb the last years of these servants 
and benefactors. 

4. Reward in consciousness of having done good. — The 
noblest reward of all is the sublime consciousness in the 
teacher's own soul that he has done his duty and that he 
has been a blessing to his fellow-men. Greater than the 
external evidences of success in the schoolroom and in life, 
is this inner consciousness. But little of this world's goods 
may have been accumulated, there may even be no striking 
example of greatness among those he has taught, but if 
duty has been done, no matter if in the humblest of stations, 
there comes to the faithful teacher satisfaction like that 
of the woman who poured ointment upon the Saviour's 
head, and which won for her the highest approbation of the 
Master in the words, " She hath wrought a good work." 



CHAPTER III. 

PREPARATIONS BEFORE OPENING SCHOOL. 

There are certain preliminary matters that should be 
attended to before the opening day. The wise farmer 
before he begins harvesting examines his machines, sharpens 
his tools, puts his barns in order. The builder secures his 
material, engages his men, gets the necessary implements 
ready before the time of breaking ground. So the teacher 
should anticipate the opening of school by making all pos- 
sible preparations. Let us study these preliminary pro- 
visions. 

I. Securing a Position. — Having secured his license to 
teach, the young candidate is anxious about securing a 
position. There are various ways of doing this, as follows : 

By correspondence. — If the position sought is some dis- 
tance away, this may be the practicable method of approach. 
It is highly important to find out, if possible, the proper 
person to address. In towns, if the conditions are ideal, 
the proper person is the superintendent of schools. The 
modern tendency is more and more to recognize the school 
superintendent as an educational expert upon whom the 
duty of nominating teachers rests. Associated with him, 
there is usually a committee on teachers. If the can^^l^te 
is obliged to address a letter somewhat at random, it might 
be sent either to the superintendent or to the chairman of 
the teachers' committee. 

25 



26 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

In country districts, the clerk of the board of education 
is usually the proper person to address. County superin- 
tendents are often familiar with vacancies, the trustees 
being quite likely to call upon them to recommend teachers. 
The chance of receiving attention is materially increased if 
one applies to the right person ; hence, great pains should 
be taken to obtain this knowledge. 

The letter. — The letter of application is a matter of 
great importance. First of all, it should be in good Eng- 
lish. It is surprising how often applicants for positions 
lose sight of this, and many hopes are dashed to the 
ground because of a misspelled word, a false construction, 
or some other error in the use of the mother-tongue. The 
carelessness of teachers on this point is woful, and, I do not 
need to add, inexcusable. A president of a school board 
once handed me the letters of acceptance of twenty-five 
teachers who had been invited to take positions in the 
schools for the next year. Most of them were old teachers 
who were continued from the previous year. The letters 
were not selected ; they were the replies of the entire force 
of teachers in the town. There was not a single letter 
that was free from error in English, though the writers 
were intelligent and successful teachers. They had simply 
been careless. While such carelessness did not prove 
fatal to their chances in this case, the letters being accept- 
ances, it would have been fatal had they been strangers 
and had the letters been applications. If, in so important 
a matter as a communication seeking employment, the 
applicant shows a lack of the habit of using good English, 
the school board may justly hesitate to put such a person 
in charge of the training of their children. 

In the next place, the letter should be concise. School 



PREPARATIONS BEFORE OPENING SCHOOL. 27 

boards receive a great many communications from candi- 
dates, and they do not like long letters. If they need a 
teacher, and are attracted by an applicant so much as to 
open correspondence, a fuller statement of qualifications 
would be proper. The object of the first letter is to gain 
attention and awaken interest, and if this succeeds, the 
board will listen to a longer communication. The first 
letter should contain (i) a formal application, expressing 
choice of work with such latitude as would be considered ; 

(2) a statement of qualifications, grade of license, school 
graduated from, and amount of experience in teaching ; 

(3) references, including copies of recommendations ; and 

(4) a postage stamp for reply. In general, this is all that 
the first letter should contain, and it should be neatly writ- 
ten, carefully expressed, and to the point. 

Personal application. — If possible, a personal visit to 
the superintendent or board of education is far better than 
correspondence. Many boards like to see the candidate 
face to face before engaging him. Both parties can form 
a far better estimate of the desirability of a contract, and 
the needs of the school can be discussed. If a teacher is 
unsuited to a position, it is better that this be discovered 
before an arrangement is completed, — far better for him 
as well as for the school. 

Teachers' bureaus. — A third method of securing a 
position is by means of an institution that has become 
very useful in recent years, namely, the teachers' bureau. 
These bureaus usually charge a nominal sum as registra- 
tion fee, and five per cent of the first year's salary when a 
position is secured through them. They have opportunities 
of knowing of vacancies, and often serve as a medium be- 
tween school boards and teachers whereby both are served. 



28 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

The contract. — After an engagement has been effected, 
there should be a written contract between the parties. 
It -is the teacher's right and duty to secure as good a 
salary as possible, but when an agreement has been made 
no offer of a better position should tempt him to break his 
contract unless with the consent of the other , contracting 
party. It is better to suffer temporary pecuniary loss than 
to dishonor the teachers' vocation by failure to keep one's 
agreement. While, as we have said, it is the teacher's 
duty to secure the best possible salary, when he enters 
upon his labors the amount of salary must not influence 
the quality of his work or his zeal in its performance. He 
must do his best regardless of salary ; he must give his 
whole life, his whole strength, his best effort. There is 
good business philosophy in this, as well as moral obli- 
gation, for he who seeks to earn his salary merely is 
overpaid, however small that salary is ; and he who proves 
himself worth more than he is receiving will ultimately 
secure recognition by advanced salary. This is true of all 
occupations, and it is one of the most important lessons to 
be instilled into American life. 

2. Entering the Field. — When should the teacher be 
on the ground, and what are the preliminary steps to be 
taken ? In discussing this question, I am thinking partic- 
ularly of the country teacher upon whom the whole respon- 
sibility rests, rather than of one who takes a subordinate 
position under a principal. The latter will not have the 
chief responsibility, while the former must attend to all 
preliminaries himself. The teacher should go to a new 
district two or three days before school opens. A longer 
time than this is unnecessary if not inadvisable. A suit- 



PREPARATIONS BEFORE OPENING SCHOOL. 



29 



able boarding-place should be selected, not too near the 
school, so that there may be the incentive for walking, 
and so that when ischool work is over he may get away 
from its atmosphere. Outside of school, the teacher 
should lay aside its responsibilities and cares so as to be 
fresh for the duties of each day, and so as to escape the 
pedantic character to v/hich we have already alluded 
(see p. 16). 

A visit should be paid to the district clerk or official 
who holds the keys of the schoolhouse, preserves the 
school register and other materials that are needed, and 
these secured. The old register should be studied in 
order to become familiar with the names of children, es- 
pecially those of peculiar pronunciation. The daily pro- 
gram of the preceding term should be secured, or, if this 
is impossible, a tentative one prepared for the first few 
days' use. Then the schoolhouse should be visited to see 
that it has been properly cleaned, to find if repairs are 
necessary, to note if the needed materials, books, etc., are 
at hand, and to study the schoolroom. If the cleaning 
and repairs have not been attended to, the school board 
should be notified at once ; and if the seating is improper, 
attention should be called to it, even though it may not 
be possible to have a change made at once. It will pre- 
pare the way for future presentation of the hygienic needs 
of the school, and assist in securing the changes desired. 
I once visited a school in charge of an intelligent principal 
and eight assistants. The pupils of the grammar depart- 
ment sat in a large room for study, while the classes re- 
cited in small recitation-rooms. The study-room was 
about 40 feet by 80 feet, with ceiling not over ten feet 
high. The windows were all located at one end of the 



30 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



room and about half-way down one side, thus leaving two and 
a half sides of the room with no means of admitting light. 
And yet the seats were arranged so 'as to face towards 
the dark end of the room. Thus the two hundred chil- 
dren were seated with their backs towards what little light 
the low-ceilinged, scantily lighted room possessed ! I 
suggested to the principal that if the seats were faced the 
other way it would be a great improvement, even though 
fearfully bad at best. Although it was a bright, sunshiny 
day, it was so dark in parts of the room that one could 
scarcely read print. And yet for five years this man had 
allowed this state of things to exist without even a pro- 
test to his school board. "It is of no use," said he, "they 
will do nothing." I do not believe that a school board can 
be found in America that would refuse to make a change 
involving so little expense and of so great importance as 
this, if the case were earnestly, wisely, persistently laid 
before them. At least the teacher must do his part and 
thus absolve himself from the responsibility of evils result- 
ing from such neglect. Thus fortified, and possessed with 
a fixed purpose of securing right conditions, while con- 
scientiously determined to have no part in subjecting little 
children to these evils, the teacher will rarely find a school 
board that will not comply with reasonable requirements. 
There are plenty of schools where there is a woful lack of 
proper hygienic arrangements, and generally if they are 
to be corrected, the teacher must take the initiative. For 
this reason he should begin at once with discretion and 
wisdom. His attitude must not be that of a fault-finder, 
but of one who is preparing to do the community the 
greatest possible good, and who knows the means whereby 
that is to be accomplished. 



PREPARATIONS BEFORE OPENING SCHOOL. 



31 



He should examine the school property with the deter- 
mination to accept full responsibility for its preservation, 
but not to be held accountable for damage previously done. 
Maps, text-books, reference books, erasers, and other ap- 
paratus should be examined, and where the supply needs 
replenishing attention called to that fact, so that there 
may be no delay in instituting full-pressure work when the 
school opens. A careful study of the schoolroom should 
be made, so that the best way of manipulating the school- 
room movements may be employed. 

Having attended to these matters, I think the teacher 
may quietly enjoy a Sabbath's rest, and be prepared to 
enter upon the Monday morning duties with serene con- 
fidence and expectation of success. A caution may here 
be in place. It is not well that the teacher should listen 
to gossip about this boy or that girl. If Tom Jones has 
been a bad boy under a previous teacher, it by no means 
follows that he is going to be a bad boy under the new 
one. It may be that Tom has resolved to turn over a 
new leaf. If so, it will not help matters if he finds out 
that the new teacher has heard all about him, and is, per- 
haps, already prejudiced against him. The teacher should 
be able to go before his pupils the first day and say with 
perfect truthfulness and frankness : *' I know absolutely 
nothing against a single boy or girl here, and do not want 
to believe that any of you are bad. No matter what the 
past has been, I want you all to be good from now on." 
This gives every one a chance to form good resolutions, 
and the pupils should be encouraged to do so and helped 
to keep them. Believing a child to be bad, and treating him 
as if he were bad, will often make hira bad. Believing 
him to be good will often lead him to seek to justify your 



3 2 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

faith in him. It is better to make a mistake and think a 
child good even if he turns out to be bad than to think 
him to be bad when possibly he is ^ood. This spirit is 
"twice blest ;" it blesses the child who is brought under 
its influence, and it blesses the teacher whose action 
is in accord with it. I hardly know which receives the 
greater blessing ! It is the spirit of the Great Teacher 
in all of His attitudes towards weak and sinful humanity. 
May every teacher have more of this spirit ! 



;c CHAPTER IV. 

THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 

Every young teacher dreads his introduction to his 
school, and even the old teacher regards the first day in 
a new school with considerable anxiety. Very much 
depends upon the successful meeting of the duties and 
difficulties of this important occasion. The establishment 
of correct relations between teacher and pupils from the 
outset will save both from future trouble and misunder- 
standing. Discipline will be made easier and more natural, 
revolt will be anticipated and prevented, the spirit of 
the work in hand will be appreciated, right impressions 
will be formed, which will extend not only to the pupils 
but also to the parents and the community who are 
eagerly waiting for the verdict concerning the teacher 
when the children shall come home from school. Many 
teachers make mistakes during the first day which require 
weeks of labor to correct, and thus seriously handicap their 
usefulness in the school. 

Gathering at the School. — The teacher should be early 
at the school the first morning, for the children will be 
there early. They have had a long vacation, and are eager 
to get back to school, while the novelty of a new teacher 
has its attractions. But the teacher should be there 
before any considerable number have assembled. He 
should meet them pleasantly without too much formality, 

33 



34 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



engage them in conversation, and get them to assist in 
putting things to rights. Naturalness on the part of the 
teacher at this time is of the highesit importance. The 
children will not be deceived by any assumed characteris- 
tics, either of dignity or of over-effusiveness. 

Opening School. — At the appointed time call the school 
to order, and let the children take seats pretty much as 
they please. Permanent seating is an after-consideration. 
Open the Bible at once, and read a portion of Scripture 
without comment, and ask the pupils to join in the Lord's 
Prayer, when so much religious exercise is allowed. There 
is nothing that will bring a school into good order so nat- 
urally and effectually as these simple religious exercises. 
For this reason, if for no other, these exercises should 
never be forbidden. Religious exercises always command 
respect with children as well as with adults, and there are 
but few people who will refuse to assume an attitude of 
reverence while such exercises are in progress. There are 
also but few people, whatever their creed, that will object 
to such exercises in the school, provided no sectarian 
teaching is introduced. 

Whether or not there shall be singing on this first day 
depends upon the ability of the teacher to lead. It is 
better to have none than to have a fiasco. Singing should 
be introduced later, when the teacher has found out who 
among the pupils can sing and what pieces they know, 
even if the teacher cannot sing. Unfortunately, we have 
not yet reached Luther's dictum of four hundred years 
ago, that " it is necessary that every teacher shall be able 
to sing," a requirement that is met by every teacher in 
the German schools, and that has made the German people 



THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 



35 



lovers of music. Singing should be an important part of 
school exercises, not only in the morning, but also several 
times during the day. If a speech is to be made, it should 
be next in order. The speech certainly should not be long. 
A few words expressing a strong desire to be the friend 
and helper as well as instructor of the children would not 
be amiss. But nothing should be said about rules, or con- 
duct, or discipline, or good order ; nor should there be any 
threats, or undue exhibition of authority. This will not 
be necessary at the outset, for the children on this first 
morning will be watching the new teacher in order to form 
a judgment of the material of which he is made. Out- 
breaks may come later, and the young teacher must be 
ready for them, but to anticipate them by suggestion will 
only precipitate them the sooner. Quiet, firm, clean-cut in 
manner and speech, the teacher will give his pupils the 
impression that he does not say much, but that he means 
all he says. He must prove to his pupils that he is there 
for business, that he knows his business, and that the first 
business is to get everybody at work. The commencement 
of the day should be perfectly natural, and the teacher 
should assume leadership as though he expected perfect 
comradeship with his pupils without resigning his right to 
direct. Whatever is said or done should embody a spirit 
of frankness and sincerity, while it carries with it a tone of 
firmness and confidence. 

Securing Names. — Having the old register in his pos- 
session, let the teacher call the roll from that, inquiring 
after the absentees, and supplementing with the names of 
the new pupils. The list of names should not be entered 
into the permanent roll-book for a few days until the chil- 



^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

dren who are coming to school have entered. By this plan, 
only a few minutes will be required to secure the names of 
all the pupils. ^ 



Seating. — We have seen that the pupils have taken seats 
where they pleased when they came in. The larger pupils 
will naturally take the rear seats, and the smaller ones 
those nearer the front. If the seats are graded in size, this 
is a hygienic arrangement. If the seats are double, it may 
be well to allow the children to choose their seat-mates; 
but they should be told at the outset that this arrangement 
will hold good only so long as good order and good work 
follow. Their wishes are thus respected, and at the same 
time warning is given that the purpose of the school must 
be respected, and that a change will be made if necessity 
demands it. It puts the responsibility of good behavior 
upon them. Of course, when defects of hearing or eye- 
sight appear, they must be considered in seating the pupils. 
It is well, at this point, to call attention to the care of the 
desks. If there are any defects in the school furniture, 
careful note of the same should be made, and the children 
instructed that no destruction of the school property will 
be tolerated. Let the children know that they will be 
called to a strict account for pencil- or knife-marks on their 
desks. I have known teachers to be utterly indifferent to 
the condition and preservation of school property, thereby 
doing a great injustice to the community that employs them, 
and committing a far greater wrong against the pupils, 
upon whom the lesson of regard for public property should 
be impressed. It will be a convenience in the movement 
of classes to have those belonging to the same class sit 
near one another. 



THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 



37 



Carrying Out the Daily Schedule. — I have said in the 
preceding chapter that the teacher must provide himself 
with a temporary program of daily work. This should now 
be carried into effect. Let us suppose that first on the 
program is the A class in arithmetic. Have this class arise 
and pass to the recitation-benches in such order as has been 
decided to be the most feasible and to cause the least con- 
fusion. In a mixed school, where a large part of the pupils 
are engaged in study while a class is reciting, the latter 
should be brought to the front. There is a great deal in 
close contact between teacher and pupils while instruction 
is being given. I once witnessed a recitation in which the 
pupils were ranged on benches at the rear of a large room, 
the teacher being at the front. Aside from the disturbance 
to the pupils who were studying in the room caused by the 
teacher shooting over their heads, as it were, the class it- 
self lost much of the force of the instruction because of 
the distance. It is much like the law of the intensity of 
Hght, which varies inversely with the square of the distance. 
The personality, the enthusiasm, the efficiency of the 
teacher, will be greatly increased if the class is brought 
forward so as to be in close contact with him. The best 
way of marching classes to and fro should be adopted so as 
to economize time, — a very important item in a mixed 
school with its many classes. This movement should be 
conducted at this time in the same manner that it is pro- 
posed to employ in the future. It is well to begin right. 

Having the class seated, take their names, distribute 
books if they are furnished, and assign the first lesson. 
The lesson assigned cannot be an advance lesson, for there 
is no time to explain a new lesson. It certainly should 
not be, *'TakQ the first lesson in the book." Assume 



38 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

that former work has been well done until weaknesses are 
discovered. When it is found that the work of the previous 
teacher has not been thorough, the pupils will be reconciled 
to go over it again. On the whole, I think it best to assign 
as review the last lesson of the previous term, explaining 
to the pupils that there is no time to speak of new work, 
and that a review of this will prepare them to understand 
the advance work. In arranging a schedule for the first 
day, it is better to begin with the older pupils, so as to 
get them at work. They are more likely to be disorderly 
when unemployed than the little children. 

Call the next class in arithmetic, and proceed in the 
same manner. So proceed with all the classes in arith- 
metic until all the classified pupils have been set at work. 
Time may now be taken to examine and classify in arith- 
metic the new pupils. Such classification, however, should 
be tentative, and the pupils must be told that they are 
being placed on trial. Proceed in the same manner with 
the classes in geography, reading, language, etc., namely, 
call to the recitation-benches, take names, give out books, 
assign lessons, dismiss to their seats, look after new pupils. 
The taking of the names of pupils several times over in 
this way will serve to fix them in the teacher's mind, so 
that before the close of the first day he can easily become 
familiar with the names of all pupils in a school of fifty 
children. This, in itself, is a very important beginning. 
Children particularly dislike to tell their own names re- 
peatedly, and the sooner the teacher knows the names, the 
sooner he will be master of the situation. No time 
schedule is followed this first day, but the classes are called 
in order as fast as the above scheme of work can be 
carried out. This exercise, besides furnishing opportunity 



THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL. 



39 



to learn the names, accomplishes other important ends. 
It distributes and records text-books that are public 
property, it se;ts tasks for the pupils to begin, it starts the 
machinery of the school in motion, it has a business-like 
air that commands respect. One other suggestion in 
regard to securing the names. A simple device is to have 
the children pin their names upon their clothing in some 
exposed place until the teacher knows them. 

Employment. — It will be apparent that in the preced- 
ing plan the importance of employment for children is 
fully recognized. There is no surer and better means of 
forestalling mischief, maintaining order, promulgating the 
right spirit, and fixing the notion that the school is a 
business enterprise, than by keeping the pupils busy. 
Establish the idea at the outset that idleness will not be 
tolerated. Let the lessons for the following day be pre- 
pared in regular order. 

After going through the program of studies, it will be 
found profitable to practise schoolroom movements, such 
as passing to and from recitations, going to the black- 
board, marching in and out of the room, as well as about 
the room. Economy in time will be secured thereby, and 
the children will enjoy these exercises. Besides this, 
marching exercises are an excellent means of gaining con- 
trol of a school, securing respect for authority, and giving 
the teacher confidence in his power to command. 

Should there still be time, begin with the class whose 
recitation falls at that time of the day, say two o'clock in the 
afternoon, and give the instruction much as you expect to 
give it in the future. The pupils have had no time to pre- 
pare this lesson, it is true, but it is better to commence the 



40 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

routine of work so that the regular order will follow 
the next day. Thus the day will be completed, and the 
machinery of the school will be found to move along 
smoothly and in perfect order. 

Recapitulation. — During the first day, the following 
things have been accomplished : 

1. The names of all the pupils have been learned, a 
matter of no small importance. 

2. The pupils have all been classified, and their names 
recorded in the daily register, and in their proper classes. 

3. Books have been given out and charged to the pupils. 

4. Lessons have been assigned, and the children have 
begun to prepare them. 

5. Some familiarity with the environment has been ob- 
tained, and the machinery of the school set in motion. 

6. Lastly, a good impression by such a first day has 
been made upon the pupils — an impression that the 
teacher knows what he wants and how to get it, that he is 
enthusiastic and zealous, that he is seeking the best good 
of his pupils, that he means to serve the community to the 
best of his ability ; — and these impressions will be carried 
to the many homes represented in the school, and to the 
parents who have eagerly been waiting for a report of the 
first day of school. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF WORK. ^ 

The tentative program which will answer for the first 
few days is only a temporary expedient. After a short 
time, when the teacher shall have become acquainted with 
the needs of the school and with the work, he will spend 
many hours in devising a schedule of work that will be 
harmonious, that will properly correlate the material, that 
will place each subject where the greatest good can be 
obtained from it, taking into account the whole field, that 
will recognize the rights of all classes and grades of 
children, and that will work smoothly. I believe that a 
loss of ten, twenty, and perhaps a still greater per cent in 
the effectiveness of teaching, often occurs from an im- 
properly arranged program. If this loss were sustained by 
a manufacturer, a merchant, or any other business man in 
the conduct of his estabhshment, it would mean ruin. 
Why should such loss be tolerated in the school when it 
can be avoided, and the efficiency of the school increased 
from ten to fifty per cent .? A great deal is said about 
waste in school enterprise ; the greatest waste of all comes 
from an improper arrangement of the daily work.^ 

It has been found by tests that the child is more accu- 
rate, more attentive, and remembers better, the first period 
of the day than at any other time ; that his strength in 

1 See chapter on the Daily Program in my " Foundations of Educa- 
tion." 

41 



41 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

each of these diminishes during the progress of the session, 
becoming very weak after a long session ; that the rest of 
a recess or change of occupation recuperates the powers 
and reinstates the mental vigor in a measure ; and that 
while some subjects gain by having the preference as to 
time of day given to them, others lose little by being 
placed at a less favorable time. Thus, if arithmetic, 
which requires keen mental alertness, is placed early in the 
morning, the best result for that subj ect is obtained ; while 
if it be placed at the end of a long session, it loses fear- 
fully. On the other hand, if reading, which does not 
require such intense application as arithmetic, is placed 
first in the day, it also will show excellent results ; if placed 
at the end of the session, it, too, will lose, but not by far 
to such an extent as arithmetic. Now, the question of 
relative values does not enter here. It is not whether 
arithmetic or reading is of greater educational value, but 
what arrangement of studies will do the most for the child. 
If both are equally benefited by receiving preference as to 
time, and the one loses fearfully by being placed at the 
last period, while the other loses Httle, the arrangement 
should be such as would cause the least loss and reach the 
best results all around. 

In general, then, the rule should be to place the hardest 
subject first in the morning, less difficult ones following, 
until those requiring the least appHcation will fall at the 
end of the session. If there is a long noon recess, say 
of an hour and a half, or two hours, it will be seen that 
the pupils have recuperated so as to be able to take up 
more difficult work again ; but it will probably be found 
that the depletion of strength is more rapid than in the 
forenoon. Hence the afternoon session should be shorter 



THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF WORK. 43 

than the morning session, and, on the whole, the lessons 
should be easier. 

To be explicit, it would seem best to place arith- 
metic the first thing in the morning (reading for beginners, 
because it is their hardest subject), followed by language 
work, science, reading, drawing, penmanship, and busy- 
work for the little children ; in the afternoon, history, 
geography, manual training, etc. This would be the gen- 
eral plan of arranging the studies whether in a graded or an 
ungraded school, whether in the city or in the country. Of 
course, the details would vary according to circumstances. 
Little children must have reading and number work each 
session of the day. But these are the general principles 
upon which every teacher should arrange his permanent pro- 
gram ; and if he does this, there will be economy of time, 
saving of waste, without extra labor or exertion. It must 
not be forgotten that the teacher is subject to the same 
laws of physical endurance as the children, and that he, 
too, is fresh and strong at the beginning of the day and 
weary at its close. If tests were made upon the teacher, it 
would doubtless be found that an adjustment of the work 
along the lines indicated would conserve his strength, and 
greatly add to the force and efficiency of his teaching. 

Daily Lessons. — With young children it is better to 
have daily recitations in each subject, even though the 
period be short ; and with first- and second-year pupils it 
is advisable to have more than one recitation a day in 
reading and number work. 

A friend of mine arranged for an hour's lesson and con- 
versation in German once a week for her six-year-old boy. 
The teacher was accomplished, and the boy bright and 



44 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



intelligent ; but after seven years I examined the boy and 
found that he had accomplished surprisingly Httle. Fif- 
teen minutes or even ten minutes each day in the week 
would have secured far greater results. Maturer pupils 
may have lessons alternate days with profit, and this will 
be necessary in the country school, where there are usu- 
ally a few large boys and girls who want to do some ad- 
vanced work ; but the small children should recite every 
day. It is better to concentrate the work upon a few sub- 
jects until they are completed than to carry many subjects 
by having them only on alternate days. 

The Recess. — There is a movement in many places 
looking to the abandonment of the recess. It is urged 
that most of the immoral practices of the school crop out 
during recess, that it causes confusion, that it wastes time, 
and that it provokes disorder. 

As to the immoral tendencies of the recess, it furnishes 
the opportunity for quarrels, for the use of vulgar or pro- 
fane language, and for other evils incident upon a number 
of children playing together. But these things need not 
be if the teacher exercises a proper supervision of the 
children during their recreation. Not that the teacher 
should wholly control or perhaps even direct the activities 
of the playground. It was always painful for me to wit- 
ness the solemn procession of German children under the 
censorship of their teacher as they slowly marched around 
the school-ground at the recess, as is their usual custom. 
Even in the rare cases when they were allowed to play, it 
was under the leadership of the teacher, and was wholly 
perfunctory. But the teacher should mingle with the chil- 
dren, joining in their games at times as one of their num- 



THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF WORK. 



45 



ber, and always know what is going on among them. 
There should be all the freedom and relaxation that the 
circumstances will permit. In many of our large cities 
the cost of building-sites is so great that suitable play- 
grounds cannot be provided. Even in this case the recess 
should not be omitted, but the children should be fre- 
quently taken out of their rooms, and an opportunity for 
all the relaxation possible should be given to them. 

Instead of the recess fostering immorality, it may be 
made of the highest moral utility. Children can be taught 
respect for the rights of others, unselfishness, generosity, 
and kindred virtues on the playground, and there is no 
exercise in the schoolroom or subject of the curriculum 
that affords such excellent chance to teach these virtues. 
As men and women they will associate and must respect 
each other's rights. The recess affords a means of teach- 
ing them to do this. Besides, it must not be forgotten 
that children do mingle freely before and after school, and 
all the opportunities for evil that the recess offers will be 
offered upon plenty of occasions where there is no over- 
sight or restraint. If there are immoral practices at 
recess, it is probable that the trouble lies deeper than the 
surface, and that the school is lacking in moral tone. 

Some confusion also is caused by the recess. But it is 
confusion that breaks up the monotony, that reinvigorates 
and puts new life into the children. There is no reason 
why pupils should not pass out of and into the schoolroom 
in perfect order, and it is a splendid training to teach them 
to do so. And when they are again seated they will soon 
settle down to their work with new oxygen in the blood, 
and new strength for the remaining hours of school. The 
recess is no waste of time. Indeed, it is a gain in time, 



46 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

for with the abiUty to do better work they will more than 
make up the time of the recess. I feel sure that pupils 
will accomplish more with fifty minutes' work and ten min- 
utes' rest than they would accomplish in the full sixty 
minutes of work without any rest ; and this principle will 
hold good for the whole school-day. That is why the Ger- 
man schools have a recess of from five to fifteen minutes 
every hour. It will be found also that the relaxation of 
the recess is invaluable for the teacher, provided he will 
accept it as .such, and not continue to keep busy with some 
kind of tasks. 

The One-session Plan. — Many communities, especially 
cities, have but one session a day, extending over four or 
five hours continuously, with one or two short intermissions. 
If it is true that the child's powers grow weaker with each 
hour's work, — and there is no reasonable doubt of it, — the 
last hours of a long session must be of greatly diminished 
value to the child, if not distinctly harmful. Such a prac- 
tice may be followed in high schools where the children have 
attained sufficient mental and physical vigor to stand the 
long-sustained exertion, but surely it should not be inflicted 
upon little children, who need frequent and extended peri- 
ods of rest. It is of questionable wisdom even in the high 
school, as it has been noticed that children just up from the 
grammar school, where they are accustomed to two sessions 
a day, find the strain very severe. The one-session plan, 
it is true, gives both teacher and pupils a long afternoon 
for work as well as recreation, but it may be better that 
school-work should be done under the supervision of teach- 
ers ; that not too much home-work should be required 
or allowed. Even if the subjects are so arranged as to 



THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF WORK. 



47 



relieve the pupil by alternating difficult with easy subjects, 
— and great relief may be effected by this, — the best re- 
sults will be attained when there is an intermission at mid- 
day of at least an hour and a half, with short recesses 
during each session. All German schools follow the two- 
session plan, with a noon interval of at least two hours. 

Number of Recitations During the Day. — Most mixed 
schools have too many recitations. One teacher told me 
that she had "eighty-five pupils and eighty-six classes." 
Another, who spoke seriously, told me that she had forty-two 
daily recitations in her school of fifty pupils. It is needless 
to say that the best work cannot be done with so many classes. 
Twenty recitations a day should be the maximum, and this 
should be reduced if possible. In graded schools, where the 
teacher has only one or two grades under his charge, 
the number can be brought down to ten or twelve. Let 
the teacher sit down, pencil in hand, and reckon up how 
many classes in arithmetic, geography, reading, language, 
etc., are necessary, and if the number foots up too great, 
combine and eliminate until the minimum is reached. If 
there are twenty recitations, it will give an average of 
about fifteen minutes to each. Some classes will need 
more than this, as those in advanced arithmetic, history, 
etc., while others will not need so much. This time, fifteen 
minutes, will serve as a measure in distributing the time 
among the classes. The size of the classes will also be a 
factor to be reckoned with, as a large class is entitled 
to more time than a small one. The portion of time 
allotted to beginners in reading and number can be divided, 
a part being given to the morning and a part to the after- 
noon, as little children must have short and frequent reci- 



48 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

tations. The wise and just allotment of time to the 
various classes is a very important matter. It may require 
several days of experimenting before a program that works 
smoothly is completed. No scheme is here given because 
it is a problem that must be worked out by each teacher 
for his own school. Certain principles have been laid down 
as guides, which are recapitulated at the end of this chapter. 
Let the teacher follow these, and a program of daily work 
can be constructed that will utilize every moment of time 
to the best advantage. 

Seat-work. — The seat-work should be as definitely 
specified in the schedule as the recitation. A time for 
everything, and everything at its proper time, is a good 
motto for both teacher and pupils. There must be no 
wasting of valuable time in the seats any more than in the 
recitation. The children must know the specific work they 
are expected to do, and must be required to do that before 
they may do anything else. This will be found to aid 
materially in maintaining good order. Children are always 
active, and they soon learn to direct that activity in a 
proper channel, and that is good order. In addition to the 
regular work assigned, there should be special work out- 
lined that the pupils may do when their regular tasks are 
completed. This will furnish employment for those that 
learn easily, or have done their work already. This work 
may consist of topics indicated on the blackboard, use of 
books of reference, events of history, biography, extra 
problems, drawing, etc. The main thing is that the pupils 
early learn to keep busy. Recapitulation assists the 
student to retain. I believe in it most thoroughly as a 
pedagogical practice. Hence, this should be retained. 



THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF WORK. 49 

Recapitulation. — The object of this chapter is to call 
attention to the importance of a proper arrangement of the 
daily schedule, and to aid the teacher in making such an 
arrangement. If no other result is reached than to lead 
the teacher to watch his work, rearrange, experiment, put 
lessons that are not properly placed at some other time, 
until the best results are obtained for the work as a whole, 
this chapter will not have been written in vain. I am 
convinced that many of the disappointments in the teacher's 
work are caused by an improper arrangement of the 
studies, and that changes could often be made to strengthen 
the weak places without loss to the others. If a gain of 
ten per cent in the general efificiency of the school can be 
effected by a careful adjustment of the subjects of the 
daily schedule, it is well worth while. I am convinced 
that fully that amount can be saved. 

To recapitulate the various matters considered : 

1. Do not allow more than twenty daily recita- 
tions. 

2. Take fifteen minutes as the average time for each 
recitation, allowing more time to the advanced classes, and 
less to the beginners. 

3. Place the hardest subjects first in the morning, less 
difficult ones next, and easy subjects at the close of the 
session. Follow the same general plan in the afternoon, 
though the afternoon subjects should not, on the whole, be 
so difficult as those of the forenoon. 

4. Alternate the hard and easy subjects, bearing in 
mind, however, the general principles stated in No. 3. 

5. Indicate seat-work as well as recitations. 

6. Have frequent recesses, which should be periods of 
total relaxation. 



so 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, 



7. Recitations should be daily, and with very young 
children twice a day. 

8. The work should be so adjusted as to give each class 
its fair share of the teacher's time. 

9. The teacher should guard against hobbies, which 
lead to too much time being given to such subjects as he 
likes, and to the neglect of other subjects. 

10. Take into account the whole work and all the sub- 
jects to be taught in arranging the daily schedule. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. 

The City School. — The city school, with its large num- 
ber of pupils and ample corps of teachers, can be graded 
according to ideal plans. The work below the high school 
is usually divided into eight grades, each grade standing 
for a year's work. As these schools are quite uniformly 
graded, and as my purpose is to assist in the work of con- 
struction, I shall pass this topic by, reserving further hints 
for the chapter on Promotion. 

The Country School. — Many seem to think that the 
rural school cannot be graded, and thus the work is allowed 
to drift along year after year, each teacher following pretty 
nearly the same plan that his predecessor did, or, too often, 
not following any plan at all. This condition of things 
doubtless grows out of the frequent changes in teachers 
in the country schools, but it is not a sufficient excuse. 
No teacher should plan his work as if his stay was to be 
short ; and even if he knows that it will be short, the work 
should be planned as it should be carried out whether by 
him or by some one else. Every new teacher should find 
out what his predecessor has attempted, and seek to carry 
farther every good work that has been begun. This does 
not mean that one teacher will attempt to imitate another. 
Each teacher must imbibe the spirit and absorb the ideas 
of every good teacher with whom he comes in contact, but 

51 



52 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



he must work them out in his own way. As educational 
theory becomes more settled, its practice will also become 
more uniform. In no place is there such need of broad 
educational theory, and consequently of trained teachers, 
as in the country. The fact that teachers there change 
more frequently makes uniformity more difficult. The 
problem of the country school and its proper grading is 
calling for the best thought of educators throughout the 
land. Of course, no such close grading as that of the town 
schools is practicable. But a suitable scheme of grading 
is possible, and that it would be of great benefit to the 
rural schools has been shown by wise thinkers in recent 
years. The reaction from the movement towards the city, 
which shows itself in so many business men utilizing mod- 
ern means of transportation and establishing their homes 
in the country, while they continue business in the city, 
would be encouraged if the rural school were made attrac- 
tive and efficient for their children. 

Grading in German Country Schools. — We might well 
learn the lesson that Prussia teaches in this respect. For 
more than a century her rural schools of all descriptions 
have been divided into three grades (Stufen), as follows : 
The lowest grade, children from six to eight ; the middle 
grade, those from eight to eleven ; and the highest grade, 
those from eleven to fourteen. This grading is one of the 
important factors in securing the remarkable efficiency of 
these schools. It is true that the teachers are all normal 
graduates, that they are under careful inspection, that 
changes are very infrequent, and therefore the work is 
systematized and brought to a professional basis. Doubt- 
less the grading of all the schools has had a tendency to 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. 



53 



create a want for these most desirable conditions, and 
made efficient teachers a necessity to the success of the 
system. If the grading of our rural schools could have 
that effect, it would cure two of the greatest evils of our 
school system, namely, inefficient teachers and lack of 
permanency in positions. It has had that effect in a large 
measure in our city schools, so that the weakest place in 
our educational scheme is the rural school. 

Advantages of the Mixed School. — It may be profitable 
to study the advantages of the mixed school as well as 
those of the graded school. The mixed school is not with- 
out certain benefits. Some of the greatest men of our land 
received their early education, and indeed in many cases all 
of their training, in the old-fashioned country school. No 
one can tell what the result might have been had they 
been trained in the graded school with its many helps and 
its superior facilities. Perhaps it would have " ironed all the 
originality out of them." Perhaps they would have been 
far greater than they became. It is useless to speculate 
upon the probabilities. But what are the advantages of 
the mixed school ? 

I. T/ie child learns to be self-reliant. — He works largely 
as an individual, and receives but little help from th^ 
teacher. The criticism so often heard in these days, that 
the teacher does too much for the pupil, a complaint that 
is probably well founded, could not be made of the old-time 
school. The child was set at his task, and left to do it 
largely as he pleased, in his own way and in his own time, 
and the teacher examined the work to see if it was done — 
in other words, "heard the lesson." This caused great 
waste of effort on the child's part, often brought discourage- 



54 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

ment, and sometimes led to his abandonment of the task 
and the school. But it had a tendency to cultivate the 
self-reliance which makes strong men, and admirably pre- 
pared them to cope with life's hard duties with confidence 
and success. 

. 2. It encourages individual work. — The child could 
work at his own pace without being held back by slower 
pupils or over-hastened by those capable of greater speed 
than he. He escaped what is now considered the great 
defect of a closely graded system, the so-called " lock-step," 
which holds him to the pace that the rest of the class can 
maintain. On the other hand, he lost some of the stimulus 
of rivalry with others of his class, those that were his 
equals or his betters. Of this I shall speak in another 
place, in treating the advantages of a graded school. 

3. It furnisJies an opportunity for children to learn from 
the recitations of the higher classes. — The United States 
Commissioner of Education shows that in 1899 the "aver- 
age number of years of schooling (of 200 days each) that 
each individual of the population received, . . . taking into 
account all public and private schools of whatever grade," 
was 4.96. Thus, on an average the child attends school 
less than five years, and therefore many of the subjects of 
the higher grades will never be reached by him. Children 
in the mixed school pick up a great deal of information by 
listening to the work of older pupils in recitation, that they 
would never reach because of their early withdrawal from 
school. It may be urged that this will lead them to neg- 
lect their own work, that it will be confusing, and cause 
dissipation of thought and energy. Experience has shown 
that this is not the case, and that children soon become 
accustomed to the situation and are not disturbed thereby. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. 



55 



4. There are not so many outside distractions for the 
country child. — The charge has been made against the 
public school, that its severe requirements, its high pressure, 
its demands upon the vital energy of the child, are giving 
our pupils nervous prostration. Surely, no one ever hears 
this in connection with pupils in the country school ! And 
if the truth were known, it would be found that the cases 
of nervousness among town children are traceable to out- 
side distractions, — the theatre, parties, entertainments, late 
hours, — and not often to their school-work. The school is 
the central interest in the country district, and the child 
is free from the abnormal, unhealthful, and unnatural stimuli 
that constantly invite the attention of the city child. 

5. The country school affords opportunity to study nature 
at first hand. — If the teacher knows how to utilize this fact, 
most healthful and valuable lessons can be imparted to 
child life. The trouble is, too often, that we go to books 
to study geography, plant, and animal life, and the various 
fields of natural science, when the most beautiful and 
practical lessons are undiscovered at the very door of the 
schoolhouse. Froebel appreciated this while walking through 
the Thuringian Forest, when the name " Kindergarten " 
came to him like an inspiration as '' a good name for his 
youngest-born." 

6. // trains to responsibility. — It must be admitted that 
the duties of the farm and country life afford greatest 
opportunities in training the child to assume and discharge 
responsibilities. The care of fowls, of livestock, the doing 
of home chores, the work of the household, the assist- 
ing in the manifold duties of farm-life, are educative 
influences in the highest sense. It is a splendid thing for 
a boy or girl to be brought up with this environment, even 



^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

though life has many hardships and much toil. Many of 
the great men of our country have grown up under these 
very influences. I think the country school also may 
claim its share, in conjunction with country life, in foster- 
ing these responsibilities which so well prepare for life, and 
which materially increase the country boy's chances of 
success when he goes out into the world. 

Advantages of the Graded School. — We think of the 
graded school in this connection as the school that is large 
enough to maintain a number of teachers and has at least 
eight grades. Its advantages may be stated as follows : 

1. It has a good organization. — With a number of teach- 
ers there can be a better division of labor, a closer 
grading of the pupils to meet individual advancement, a 
more carefully worked out course of study, and a system- 
atic adherence to a plan of work. While there is danger 
that too much organization may make the school-work 
perfunctory and mechanical, — a danger that has led educa- 
tors to devise means of promoting outside of the regular 
routine, and to adopt means of helping the individual pupil, 
— still it must be claimed that the graded school has proved 
economical both as to cost of maintenance and as to effort 
involved, and has been, on the whole, most salutary in its 
results. It is one of the indications of progress in educa- 
tional enterprise, and its lessons should be utilized in a 
great measure by the mixed school, which lacks in organi- 
zation. 

2. It can afford better teachers. — Because it pays 
better salaries, offers more congenial work, has better en- 
vironment, does not change its corps so often, the city 
school secures better teachers. This is inevitable and is 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. ^J 

not to be deprecated. There is no reason why the teacher 
should not better his condition by seeking a position that 
pays a higher salary and offers opportunity for professional 
advancement. Association with other teachers not only, 
but the many attractions of the town, are inducements that 
allure enterprising and well-qualified teachers, inducements 
that the country school cannot offer. Consequently the 
best teachers naturally gravitate towards the town graded 
schools. 

3. Its pupils remam longer in school. — With its full 
eight years' course and eight grades, and, in most towns, 
its high school beyond these, the child is more apt to re- 
main longer in school. It gets into an educational atmos- 
phere that is wanting in the country school. He hears 
about the high school and the college, and is more likely 
to lay his plans to attend one if not both of these. The 
establishment of a high school in a community always has 
the effect of inducing children to remain a longer time in 
a grammar school. In a word, it is an example of building 
from the top downwards. The college elevates the high 
school, and the high school leads the elementary school to 
higher ideals. The child with heights before him, is more 
likely to be ambitious to climb than if there are no heights 
that beckon him upward, nothing more lofty towards which 
he can aspire. Thus he is kept longer at school, and 
greater opportunity is afforded the teacher to mould him 
according to the ideals of manhood that he has conceived. 

4. It arouses greater ambitions. — Contact with others 
of about the same ability arouses the child's ambition. 
In a healthy graded school there is a constant stimulus to 
work, awakened by seeing classmates work. In the 
country school, where there are few or no ambitious class- 



5 8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

mates, this stimulus is lacking. Healthful emulation serves 
to bring out the powers to their fulness. That is one 
reason why a child would be taught better in classes with 
other children rather than by a private tutor, even though 
the tutor be superior and though he devote all his time to 
his pupil. Children are inspired to greater exertion, 
whether in school or on the playground, by seeing other 
children try. Hence the graded school is to be com- 
mended as a means of securing better and more continu- 
ous work. 

5. It seciLres more regular attendance. — -Better roads, 
shorter distances, fewer home duties to perform, make it 
easier to secure regular attendance in the town than in the 
country. There are so many ways in the country in which 
the children can be useful that parents far too often are 
inclined to keep them out of school. The boy can save 
the wages of an extra man, and the girl can perform many 
household duties, care for younger children, etc. Attend- 
ance in the country school is therefore often irregular. 
Parents should not forget that their highest duty to their 
offspring, a God-given duty, which no circumstance save 
illness can excuse, is to furnish them an opportunity to 
obtain an education, and allow nothing to interfere there- 
with. It is the inherent right of every child to be edu- 
cated, and the needs of the family, the selfishness of 
parents, even poverty, can offer no excuse for preventing 
or withholding that right. Not only the future of the 
child, but also that of the nation, depends upon jealously 
guarding that inestimable right. In this respect the city 
school more nearly realizes the ideal in regularity of 
attendance than the country school. 

6. It is furnished with better material means, — The 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. tg 

schoolhouses are generally better, the apparatus ampler, 
and the text-books more modern and plentiful. With 
more means at command, the city school board is able to 
supply the essential needs of the school with greater liber- 
ality, and the enterprise and intelligence of a live town 
assure a greater outlay of money for education than is pos- 
sible in the country district, where there is lack of means 
as well as absence of a spirit of healthful rivalry. 

Thus, while there are obvious advantages in the mixed 
country school, those of the graded city school are far 
superior, and efforts are being made to secure for the 
country children many of these advantages. Two methods 
to accomplish this end have been suggested, and are being 
carried out in many sections. These are the centraliza- 
tion of the school interests by transporting the children at 
public expense, and the grading of the schools, or both. 

The Transportation of Pupils. — The exodus of popula- 
tion from many country districts has reduced the number 
of school children so low that it is difficult to maintain a 
school. There is a minimum as well as a maximum limit, 
beyond which it is not profitable to maintain a school. 
From forty to fifty pupils should be the maximum number 
assigned to a teacher, and the minimum should not be less 
than twenty or twenty-five. Below this number the ^er 
capita cost to the district becomes too great, while the 
smallness of the classes makes it difficult to keep up the 
interest. A growing recognition of these facts has led to 
the adoption of plans of centralizing scattered children and 
combining several schools in one. This is done by aban- 
doning small schools and transporting the children at pub- 
lic expense to some central school, which can be graded. 



6o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Thus the children from remote districts are afforded many 
of the advantages of the graded school already set forth, 
while still living upon the farm and retaining the advan- 
tages of country life. Experiments have proved that this 
can be done without increasing the total cost of education. 
This seems to afford a solution of the question as to the 
better education of children in isolated districts. Increased 
attendance, regularity, punctuality, longer school year, 
better teachers, and better instruction, and more inspiring 
educational environments, are secured by this plan. There 
is no reason why the centralization of schools by this 
means should not increase in favor and thereby strengthen 
our educational work in its weakest place. The chief ob- 
stacle that stands in the way is the sentiment for "the 
little red schoolhouse," where parents and grandparents 
got their education. This doubtless will gradually give 
way to the necessities of the case, and to the overwhelm- 
ing argument of better educational facilities furnished. 

How to Grade. — The great majority of our country 
schools are without any system of grading. I have pointed 
out the advantages of graded schools, and while all of these 
may not be reached by the country school, with its small 
numbers and meagre facilities, is it not worth while to adopt 
some plan of grading ? Shall the new teacher drift along 
in the same track in which his predecessors had moved, 
with no effort to bring order out of the chaos of work, or 
shall he begin at once intelligently to grade his school } 
Too often the short tenure of office in a school discourages 
the teacher from beginning a new enterprise, and leads him 
to let things go as they have been going. Two things are 
necessary to obviate this evil: (i) greater permanency in 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. 6 1 

positions, and (2) a uniform scheme of grading for country 
schools required by law, enforced by the school authorities, 
and supported by public opinion. So long as teachers fre- 
quently change, and so long as there is no agreement as 
to uniform grading, no progress will be made. I therefore 
make bold to offer a scheme of grading for country 
schools which, while it by no means attempts to say the 
final word, may furnish a basis upon which to build, and 
which may lead to the ideal plan. The new teacher should 
grade his school at the earliest moment after he has famil- 
iarized himself with the situation. Of course, the mixed 
school cannot be graded with the regular eight grades of 
the city system. It would require too many recitations, 
and many of the classes would be too small for effective 
v/ork. With but one teacher in the school the number of 
grades should not be more than three. I shall therefore 
present a scheme of grading based on that plan. 

A Three-grade Scheme. — I have shown (p. 5 2) that for 
a century the Germans have graded their country schools 
by the three-grade plan, and this is the general idea of the 
Committee of Twelve of the National Educational Associa- 
tion in its report. How shall the teacher who enters a 
school that has never been graded proceed to grade it so 
that the benefits of systematized work may be secured 
without creating too many classes and necessitating too 
many daily recitations, and without establishing too much 
school machinery.? Let him select two subjects, such as 
arithmetic and reading as a basis, — for these subjects 
embrace all the pupils, — and classify those up to eight 
years of age in the C grade, from eight to eleven in the 
B grade, and above eleven in the A grade. Of course. 



62 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



qualifications in the two subjects will take precedence of 
the age limit, but the latter will serve as a guide. No fixed 
or absolute rule can be established as to the grade in which 
a child shall be put, and the first assignment will necessarily 
be tentative, subject to such change as the demonstrated 
ability of each pupil may later indicate. Thus, if a pupil is 
in advance of or below pupils of his age in these subjects, he 
will be placed in the grade correspondingly higher or lower 
as his case requires. If this does not furnish division of 
the work in given subjects to meet the needs of the 
pupils, let there be two divisions of the grade in 
those subjects ; as, for example, in reading there will 
necessarily be more than three classes. It will often 
be found that two divisions can be ultimately merged into 
one, and in any case they can be worked together. The 
scheme may be illustrated as follows : 



A THREE-GRADE SCHEME. 



A 


Arithmetic i 
Arithmetic 2 


Reading 


Geography 


History 


B 


Arithmetic 


Reading 


Geography i 
Geography 2 


History 


C 


Arithmetic 


Reading i 
Reading 2 







CONTINUED. 



A 


Language 


Science 


Writing 


Drawing 


B 


Language 


Nature 
Work 


Writing 


Drawing 


C 




Nature 
Work 


Writing 


Drawing 



This is merely an illustration, the teacher making two 
divisions in such subjects as will best classify the school. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCHOOL. 6^ 

In some of these subjects, as writing and drawing, all three 
grades can be worked together. It is also possible that 
both divisions of a grade in other subjects can recite 
together, thus enabling subdivisions in other subjects 
without having too great a number of recitation periods or 
too short periods. This will not prevent a child whose 
general classification is, say, B, from taking work in another 
grade if he will get greater good from it. I repeat, too rigid 
classification should not be insisted upon, and the children 
should be made to understand that the first classification 
is only a trial, and that corrections will follow as soon as 
it is demonstrated that an error has been made. 

Grading of a country school along these lines would 
have the following effect : 

1. The children will have definite aims before them, 
and they will be able to measure their progress by a well- 
understood standard. 

2. There will always be before them the incentive to 
work forward into the next class ; for instance, from B ^ to 
B^ from B^ to A^, etc. In such a school, while there 
should be regular times of promotion, a child should be 
advanced at any time of the year that he is prepared to go 
higher. 

3. It will be possible to outline a course of study. 
County superintendents who provide a course of study for 
the country schools can easily prepare their examination 
questions with reference to such grading. 

4. Parents also will have an intelligible standard by 
which to judge the progress of their children. 

5. It will introduce system where there is chaos, order 
where there is confusion. 

6. If there are frequent changes of teachers, the school 



64 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



will not suffer so much, because there is a general plan of 
work to which all teachers can readily conform. If a 
teacher, upon withdrawing from a school, leaves the details 
of grading that has been in use, his successor can take up 
the work without serious loss to the pupils. 

It only remains for the school authorities of a State to 
adopt such a plan of grading in order that there may be 
uniformity among the country schools as there is among 
the city schools with their eight grades. Such a simple 
scheme of grading our country schools is entirely feasible, 
and its introduction would work incalculable good to them. 



CHAPTER VIL 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

Probably no duty in connection with school-teaching 
causes so much anxiety to the young teacher as that of 
maintaining order. If it is a graded school, under a 
principal who possesses the authority and whose advice can 
be solicited, the difficulty is not so great for those in 
subordinate positions. Even here it is well known that 
the first thing noticed by a principal upon entering the 
room of a new teacher is the order maintained. There 
can be no successful school-work unless there is proper 
regulation. If a teacher is unable to maintain order with- 
out too frequent recourse to the principal, the teacher's 
tenure of office will necessarily be short. A reasonable 
amount of power in discipline is a positive requisite of every 
teacher, whether as principal, assistant, or sole teacher in a 
country school. One must know how to deal with refractory 
pupils, must be full of resources in the management of 
children, must be self-reliant and of positive character, in 
order to become a successful teacher in the common 
school. Owing to the importance of this question, I 
propose to enter into a somewhat full discussion of it. 
The chief end in view will be to instruct and aid the 
teacher who has sole charge of a school in the solution of 
this difficult problem. Teachers of the graded school, 
also, may perchance find valuable suggestions in this 
discussion. 

65 



6S A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Discipline a Means to an End. — It is not to be inferred 
that discipline is to have the first place in the thought of 
the school, though it may be the first thing to which atten- 
tion is called upon entering a schoolroom. Indeed, the 
best discipline is that which remains in the background, 
that calls for but little attention, that takes care of itself. 
There are teachers who constantly talk about good order, 
and who seem to think that the whole purpose of the 
school is to keep the children out of mischief. Such 
teachers are apt to have the worst kind of order ; not 
the most noise, it is true, but the repression, the austerity 
that chills ; the constant surveillance that awakens fear, 
but challenges to mischief ; the spirit that fosters slyness 
while it rules by intimidation. The reason for order in the 
school is that it is a means to an end, that end being study 
and legitimate school-work. Many things that are by no 
means evil, and that may be freely done out of school, may 
not be done here, because they would interfere with the 
work. Absolute stillness is not essential to good order. 
The county superintendent who approached a country 
school on horseback, and, in order to test how well his 
ideal of discipline was being maintained, previous to his 
visit circled about the school, swinging his hat and shout- 
ing like a cowboy, and then scolded the teacher because 
she allowed the children to look out of the windows at his 
crazy antics, had false notions of the necessary quiet of a 
school. There are times when a hearty laugh should be 
indulged in, and this certainly was such a time. 

The ends to be sought in school discipline are two, 
namely, (i) t/ie protection of the rights of every individual 
child, and (2) the ^naintenance of the good 7tame of the 
school as a whole. Every child has a right to study his 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 67 

lessons without disturbance, and he also has the right to 
protection from annoyances from others whether on the 
playground or in the schoolroom. Perfect freedom and 
equality upon the playground must be guaranteed to every 
pupil, and the undisturbed possession of his seat and the 
right to study without interference must be assured to him. 
The school that does not guarantee every child that equal- 
ity and that right cannot be said to have good order. 

In the second place, not only must the rights of the 
child be preserved, but the discipline of the school as a 
whole must be such as not to impair its good name or 
awaken public criticism. Thus, too much whispering, too 
loud study, or unnecessary noise in the schoolroom, or un- 
seemly boisterousness out of doors, or trespassing upon 
the neighbors about the school or on the way home, may 
bring the school into disrepute. 

All forms of disorder may be classed under these two 
heads, — protection of the individual, and preservation of 
the good name of the school. The teacher can appeal to 
the pupils for a violation of either, as the case may be. 
Thus, "You are preventing William from learning his 
lesson," would illustrate the first, and, " Children, there is 
too much noise for a well-ordered school," would be an 
example of the second. The ends of discipline will be 
clearly set forth, appeals can be made to children in 
matters that they can easily understand, and, at the same 
time, the discipline of the school will not be made too 
prominent. 

Obedience. — The most essential requisite of good order 
is implicit obedience. The teacher, by virtue of his office, 
has a right to expect and exact it. The license to teach 



68 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

and the appointment to a school clothes the teacher with 
all necessary authority, and the law sustains him in demand- 
ing obedience. It is the duty of the children to obey 
promptly, and the teacher who requires this obedience with 
firmness will have but little trouble in securing good order. 
Nothing less than complete and cheerful compliance with 
his requirements should satisfy the teacher, though it may 
not always be possible to secure it immediately. To illus- 
trate this point, let us suppose that a child is told to close 
a door ; he does it angrily, with a slam ; he has not obeyed, 
though he has performed the act required. Let him be 
told to close it quietly ; he again complies, but rudely 
stamps his feet on his way to the door. Once more he has 
not been really obedient, and cannot be until he shall have 
properly carried out the teacher's command. The external 
requirement has been met, and possibly that is all that the 
teacher should insist upon at that time, but in spirit — the 
pupil is still disobedient, and with this, the teacher must 
not be finally satisfied. In the story of Laura Bridgman, 
the blind mute who attracted so much attention during the 
latter part of the last century, we have a case in point. 
Laura had left some object on her desk contrary to the 
wish of her teacher. Upon being told to put it away, she 
raised the desk, put the article in, and then brought the lid 
down with a terrific bang so as to startle all in the room 
who possessed the sense of hearing. Her teacher told her 
to take the object out and put it away quietly ; she again 
complied, but gave an unearthly scream. Now the child 
had performed the mechanical acts required, but she was 
even more rebellious and disobedient than at first. Her 
teacher wisely refrained from pursuing the matter farther 
at that time, knowing that the child was excited and angry. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 6^ 

But she made Laura understand that the incident was by 
no means closed. By withholding every demonstration of 
affection and confidence for two or three days, the teacher 
made her sensible of her disobedience, and finally caused 
Laura to come to her and beg forgiveness. Then, and 
then only, had genuine obedience been rendered. Too 
often the teacher is satisfied with mere mechanical obedi- 
ence, which, while it must be insisted upon at once, must 
be followed by genuine submission, and this must be 
reached even though many days may intervene before it is 
brought about. A quiet manner, firmness, persistence, 
patience, absence of anger, are essential in securing this 
kind of obedience. Difficulty will often be avoided if the 
teacher puts the command in the form of a polite request 
which does not awaken resistance or arouse anger. There 
need be no lack of firmness in this method of approach. 
The teacher will teach courtesy by being courteous, and 
the conveying of commands in this way will furnish fre- 
quent and excellent opportunities to cultivate this virtue. 

Nagging. — There must be no nagging by the teacher if 
the desired result is to be attained. Constant harping upon 
a child's weaknesses or misdemeanors will not cure him. It 
only aggravates the evil, makes him stubborn and rebellious, 
and creates the feeling that his teacher is prejudiced against 
him. I have known teachers to make school and its duties 
intolerable by their persistent and merciless nagging of pupils 
who indeed may have done wrong. Such action is worthy 
of contempt, and no teacher with the true spirit will prac- 
tise it. The insubordinate and disobedient child should be 
met alone, the evil of his conduct pointed out to him, and 
effort made to lead him to the complete submission which 



70 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



is the sign of real obedience. Face-to-face talks between 
teacher and pupil when the fires of anger have died out, 
when the teacher can show the genuine interest felt for the 
erring child, and where the child is unsupported by the 
sympathy of his comrades, cannot fail to remove difficulties 
and do good. 

School Discipline Aims at Good Habits. — The great pur- 
pose of the school is to form right habits in the pupils. 
They should be taught to do from habit what is required 
of them — to be quiet and obedient, to respect the rights 
of others, to be diligent, thorough in school-work, amena- 
ble to the school regulations, to be and to do good. This 
thought should be constantly in the mind of the teacher. 
Habit is acquired by frequent repetition of the same act 
under the same conditions. Evil habits are to be sup- 
planted by good ones. If the teacher must call attention 
to every movement of the child, acting as an ever-present 
monitor to him, he relieves him of all responsibility and 
takes the government upon his own shoulders. In a gen- 
eral way, the teacher is responsible for the government of 
the school ; but if right habits are formed in the children, 
they will become largely self-governing. They will do 
right because it is their habit to do so, and not because the 
eye of the teacher is upon them. The school prepares for 
life, and if it fails to establish the children in habits of 
right acting and right thinking, it fails in its most import- 
ant duty towards them. 

Rules and How to Make Them. — While the teacher is not 
to begin with a list of rules the first day, as shown else- 
where, it will be necessary to have some regulations wher- 



SCHOOL government:. 



71 



ever a number of people are brought together. Some rules 
are implied, while others must be formulated. Punctual 
and regular attendance, promptness in responding to sig- 
nals, gentlemanly behavior, and respect for the rights of 
others, are implied regulations. Although attention must 
frequently be called to these in order that pupils may not 
forget their obligation to keep them, they are regulations 
that every one understands, even if they are not formally 
stated. But formal rules also will be necessary because of 
the immaturity, inexperience, and lack of judgment of 
children, as well as because some are vicious. It is to the 
making of these regulations that I desire to call special 
attention. 

1. Do not anticipate a7i evil. — Many evils would never 
occur if they had not been suggested by a rule. A mother, 
upon going out to spend an evening, called her children about 
her and said : " Now, children, I am going out, and you will 
be left alone. I want you to have a good time, but don't 
get into mischief. Be sure and not get beans up your 
noses." Needless to say, upon her return she found all of 
the children trying to remove beans from their noses. It is 
not at all likely that this form of mischief would have been 
thought of had not the mother suggested it. It often 
occurs, both in the school and in the home, that over- 
anxiety on the part of teacher or parent to prevent an 
evil suggests it to the children. It is time enough to meet 
an evil when it shows itself. 

2. Give warning before making a rnle. — If a wrong 
exists, call attention to it, and lead the pupils to correct the 
evil themselves if possible. Show them the wrong, that it 
interferes with the good order of the school, and that it 
must cease. If the pupils themselves correct the evil, 



yi A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

the end has been accompHshed. If they fail to do so, 
and a rule becomes necessary, their attitude towards 
the rule is not likely to be hostile. Their sense of 
justice is thus appealed to, and if they are subjected to 
a restriction, the most of the children will realize the fair- 
ness of the teacher's procedure and will acquiesce. It 
should not be forgotten that the large part of the school is 
disposed to do right, and the method just detailed will 
secure the co-operation of most of the children. Resist- 
ance, if any, will come only from a small minority. The 
enforcement of a rule that appeals to the sense of fairness 
of the pupils, and that has been proved a necessity, is 
comparatively easy. Children love to retain the good 
opinion of their comrades, and the few rebellious ones will 
be mightily influenced by the public sentiment of the 
school. Thus the school itself as a whole is enlisted in 
the cause of good order. 

On the other hand, a teacher will find it a serious 
undertaking to enforce an unpopular, and, as children are 
very likely to think, unnecessary rule, and he will shrink 
from attempting it a second time. The plan of making a 
rule is as follows : first, point out the evil that exists ; 
second, give the pupils warning that punishment will 
follow if the evil is not corrected — perhaps repeat the 
warning with greater force if necessary ; finally, state the 
rule. By this course of procedure the teacher takes his 
pupils into his confidence, and calls them to his aid rather 
than antagonizes them. 

3. Be firm in administering a nde when made. — When 
a rule is really necessary, let its requirements be plainly 
stated, and then hold the pupils to it. The children must 
not gain the impression that because the teacher has been 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



73 



reluctant in making' restrictions he will be uncertain in 
carrying them out. The teacher must not forget his own 
rules, nor should he have so many that he or his pupils 
will be in danger of forgetting them. I shall show in 
the discussion of Appeal to Honor that a nobler principle 
than government by rules should be employed in the 
management of a school. Looseness in enforcing rules is 
disastrous, and children soon discover whether or not the 
teacher means what he says. Firmness without anger, 
persistency without nagging, vigilance without spying, will 
secure respect both for the teacher and for the regulations 
which he finds necessary to establish. 

4. Repeal a ride when it is 7to longer necessary. — Some 
rules must be retained as permanent regulations of the 
school. Others are merely temporary. When a rule has 
served its purpose and is no longer necessary, let it be 
formally withdrawn. No rule should be allowed to become 
a "dead letter." 

Let me illustrate this point. Lying next to a school- 
ground was a vacant field upon which the children were 
allowed freely to play. This field was finally ploughed 
and a crop of wheat sowed. Of course, it became neces- 
sary to restrict the children in their use of the field, and 
this was done so effectually that, even though there was 
no dividing-fence, the owner told the principal that his 
crop had not been damaged in the least by the pupils, and 
that "the first swath of grain was as heavy as any." After 
the removal of the crop there was no longer any reason for 
restriction, but the principal would not allow the children 
to take possession of the ground until the rule had been 
repealed. He thus inculcated a respect for law as such. 

There are so many laws, which long since have lost 



74 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

their effectiveness, on the statute-books of every State, 
that even the vital enactments are brought into disrespect. 
A law, whether of school or State, should be obeyed. 
There is great need of cultivating a wholesome respect for 
law in our country, and nowhere can this be done so well 
as in the school by means of a rigid enforcement of rules 
that are necessary, and by the repealing of those that are 
no longer useful. By pursuing this course, children will 
learn respect for all law, national. State, and municipal. 

Appeal to Honor as a Means of Discipline. — As soon 
as children are old enough to use discretion they should 
be trained to self-government, which is the highest form 
of discipline. The means of reaching this is not through 
government by rules, but through a far higher principle, 
that of appeal to honor. Many teachers misuse this 
term, employing the name without applying the principle. 
The mere use of the name does not prove that pupils are 
being put on their honor. I have heard teachers say, 
"Now, children, I am going to put you on your honor," 
when they had not been trained to understand the mean- 
ing of the term, and when perhaps they were destitute of 
honor. Surely they cannot be put on their honor under 
these circumstances. They must be taught what is meant 
by the expression, and trained to apply the principle. I 
shall try to show what is meant by appeal to honor, and 
indicate the manner of bringing children to the point 
where they may be trusted to put it in force. It means 
perfect frankness on the part of the teacher, no sneaking 
or underhanded practice, or suspicion. It does not mean 
that open measures may not be employed to discover 
wrong-doing, or that punishment will not follow the dis- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



75 



covery of evil. It does not mean that authority is resigned 
by the teacher, or that he yields his right and duty to call 
offenders to an account. Nor does it mean that because 
confidence may be extended so far as the teacher in his 
judgment has found to be wise, it must be extended to all 
matters of discipline. It must be approached gradually, 
depending upon the moral conceptions that the children 
already possess. The teacher's conception of appeal to 
honor should be carefully explained to the school, and the 
limits within which appeal to honor is to be exercised 
definitely determined. It is not of the slightest use to 
attempt this form of discipline without taking these pre- 
liminary steps. Indeed, to put children to such a test 
without bringing them to understand what is expected is a 
mere abuse of a noble principle, if not worse. It would 
be training them in hypocrisy, and would be degrading 
rather than ennobling, as appeal to honor should be if 
rightly employed. 

Perhaps I can make the point clear by stating what 
took place in a school, and by showing how it was brought 
about. A young principal was in charge of a school of 
some four hundred children with eight assistant teachers. 
He presided over a large room which seated about one 
hundred children ranging from ten to eighteen years of 
age, where he heard his classes recite. Whenever he 
visited other rooms it was necessary to leave his pupils 
alone. One day, after he had been at the head of the 
school for several years, he left his room and went to 
another part of the building, leaving no one in charge. 
After an absence of perhaps half an hour, he returned 
and found a gentleman sitting upon the platform waiting 
for him. The visitor said : " I have visited a great many 



76 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

schools, but have found here the best discipline I ever 
saw." "That is very gratifying to me," said the principal. 
" What have you seen .? " " When I came into this room," 
replied the visitor, "I found everything so quiet and 
orderly that I expected to find you sitting in a seat some- 
where assisting a pupil. But I soon discovered that you 
were not here. I came into the room without announce- 
ment, have been sitting here fully twenty minutes, and 
there has not been a single disorderly act, nor has anything 
been done that might not have been done had you been 
present. Every pupil has quietly attended to his own 
business as though it were the only thing to do. It is 
most remarkable order, and I congratulate you most 
heartily." The young man told him that he frequently 
left the pupils alone, expecting them to be more careful of 
their conduct in his absence than in his presence, and that 
they rarely disappointed him. He placed his pupils on 
their honor, and they were not found wanting. 

Now, this result had not been attained in a day, but it 
came after long-continued, careful, and patient training. 
It was well worth all it cost, for his pupils had at last 
grasped the idea that it was their duty to govern them- 
selves, and that they should do it as well when alone as 
when under the eye of the teacher. His absence was 
no signal for disorder, but only a greater reason for good 
order, because the responsibility of it rested upon them. 
It is a good thing to get people to accept responsibility. 
Many a man has been encouraged to renewed exertion by 
having responsibilities laid upon him. Finding that others 
have confidence in him, he begins to have confidence in 
himself, and that is the first essential to success. This is 
one of the strongest arguments for the employment of 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



77 



the principle of appeal to honor as the basis of school 
discipline. 

I have given the result obtained in a certain school of 
discipline secured through putting pupils on their honor. 
Perhaps a detail of the method which was employed to 
reach this result will not only make clear what is meant 
by this principle, but also suggest the manner of attaining 
it. It was as follows : 

1 . Explain the memiing of appeal to honor. — Many 
children, as we have seen, have very misty notions as to 
what it means to be placed on their honor. They must 
be taught that it calls for the exercise of their own ideas 
of right and wrong ; that they should behave as well in the 
teacher's absence as in his presence, if not better ; that his 
leaving the room is not a signal for mischief. 

2. Be gemnite in putting them on theii^ honor. — 
Neither leave a monitor in charge, nor employ a secret 
agent to spy on their actions and report. This will, at 
the outset, defeat the purpose. Indeed, in no sense would 
the pupils be placed on their honor. Show that your con- 
fidence is absolute so far as the matter upon which they are 
trusted is concerned. Better that some mischief should 
remain undetected than that a pupil be employed to report. 
If mischief has been done in his absence, the wise and 
watchful teacher will soon discover it. Too profound still- 
ness, too great diligence in study, accompanied with a covert 
watching of the teacher, as well as marks of disorder in 
the schoolroom, would at once awaken the teacher's sus- 
picion. A careful study of the faces of the pupils will 
almost invariably reveal the guilty parties, who, when 
discovered, must be summarily dealt with. 

3. Do not attempt too much at once. — The teacher 



y8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

has certain ideals that he wishes his pupils to gain. They 
must be led up to these ideals step by step. If too much 
is attempted at once, the purpose will not be reached. 
Appeal to honor may be an entirely new thought to 
them, especially as to its practical bearing upon school 
life. It is, therefore, difficult for them to grasp the idea ; 
hence at the outset the teacher must utilize this method 
of discipline with discretion. If pupils have not been 
accustomed to being left alone, a few minutes' absence on 
the part of the teacher is all that should be attempted 
upon the first trial. Children are restless and prone to 
mischief. Too much must not be expected of them. 
They should not be tempted beyond their power of en- 
durance. Let the teacher's absence be taken as a matter 
of course, not calling for special comment or inviting to 
mischief. The idea that when the teacher's back is turned 
the pupils must needs get into disorder is wholly false. 
A proper use of appeal to honor will soon eradicate that 
idea. The time of absence can gradually be extended 
until the pupils can be left alone as long as desired, the 
absence being considered as nothing unusual, and the 
pupils attending to their work without thinking of mis- 
chief. 

4. Do not sfteak. — Children consider sneaking as des- 
picable, even as grown folks do. In dealing with chil- 
dren there must be no tiptoeing, no peeping through the 
keyhole, no attempt to catch the children unawares. Such 
a course destroys all thought of honor, because it is dis- 
honorable itself. If a teacher practises such a means of 
detection, he should say nothing about honor. Perfect 
frankness will win the children's respect, and in due time 
make them ashamed of conduct out of harmony with this 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 79 

idea. The boys of Rugby could not lie to Dr. Arnold 
because he would beheve them. The perfect frankness 
and genuineness of the man made them ashamed to be 
other than frank and genuine in dealing with him. Once 
more, it must not be forgotten that most of the pupils are 
well-disposed, and if the majority are led to right-doing the 
victory will soon be won. 

5 . Call offenders to strict account. — An appeal to 
honor by no means excuses wrong action. If a guilty 
one is discovered, — and a discovery is usually not a diffi- 
cult matter, — let the punishment be sure and sufficient. 
Let the children see that a violation of your confidence is 
treachery, is hypocrisy, is the more grievous evil because 
of the very frankness of the teacher. Therefore punish- 
ment for such betrayal should be more severe than for the 
same mischief committed when the teacher is in the room. 
An effective punishment for a pupil who will not behave 
when the teacher's back is turned, is for the teacher to 
take the offender with him upon leaving the room the next 
time. Says the teacher : " Come, William, I am going to 
visit the primary rooms, and you are to go with me. I 
can trust the rest of the class, but you have proved your- 
self unworthy of confidence. You cannot behave yourself 
without me ; you disturb the good order and destroy the 
good name of my school, therefore I must take you with 
me." No child will be likely to go through this experience 
twice, and the whole room also will take the lesson to heart. 

6. Finally, treat pupils as though honorable action 
only is expected. — Suspicion awakens evil, and engen- 
ders the spirit which makes suspicion justifiable. On the 
other hand, confidence begets the spirit which makes con- 
fidence possible. The teacher should not stand before his 



8o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

class and advertise the fact that he is going to leave them 
alone and wants them to be good, unless it be at first in 
explaining appeal to honor. Let there be no fuss about 
it, — set the pupils at work, go out of the room without a 
word about order, and act as though it is understood and 
expected that every one will attend to his own business. 
Children can be trained to do this ; they were trained to 
do it in the school above mentioned. Thus, the notion 
among children that the withdrawal of the teacher from the 
room for a few minutes is a challenge for them to start 
mischief, may be wholly eliminated. 

I have taken the matter of leaving pupils alone as an 
illustration of a method of appealing to honor. In all mat- 
ters of discipline the same result can be secured by a like 
method of procedure, until the children become a law unto 
themselves. The moral effect of this is unmistakable and 
inestimable. The child is trained to exactly the same prin- 
ciple that he ought to follow in his later life, — a principle 
whose practice will prepare him for good citizenship and self- 
controlled living. Thus he is under a far broader law than 
school regulations, — the moral law, the voice of his own edu- 
cated conscience, rather than the watchful eye of the teacher. 
He is safer, for his monitor is always with him, whereas 
he and his teacher must soon part. He will be guided by 
his moral consciousness. Not that his teacher's wishes 
and opinions will be ignored by him. On the contrary, 
the teacher who has the power to train the child to the 
lofty ideal that is necessary to make appeal to honor effect- 
ive will command respect, and will make impressions that 
will be as lasting as eternity. Appeal to honor is the high- 
est form of discipline, and every teacher should seek to 
bring his pupils to this ideal. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 8 I 

Use of Monitors. — Monitors may be used to assist in 
the mechanical duties of the school, such as caring for the 
blackboards, distributing materials and books, looking after 
shades and windows, etc. But they should not be employed 
either in teaching or in disciplining. Their use in correct- 
ing papers, even, is a questionable expedient. Children 
lack the judgment, the discretion, the fairness, and the 
knowledge necessary to correct each others' papers. The 
burden of correcting papers is a severe tax upon the 
teacher's time and strength, from which there seems to be 
no escape. Many lessons can be taught better in criticising 
papers than in any other way. Indeed, some things, like 
composition work, can be done in no other way. It is 
better, however, to have fewer written exercises and to 
have them well executed, than to have so many that the 
help of pupils must be accepted. Corrections made by 
schoolmates will not command the same respect as those 
made by the teacher. In matters of discipline it is unfair 
to call upon children to act as monitors, for it subjects them 
to the suspicion of their fellow-pupils and makes them 
unpopular on the one hand, and affords them an opportu- 
nity to punish enemies on the other. Injustice may thus be 
done to both parties. The teacher has no right to place a 
child in such a position, and therefore he should never 
assign any form of discipline to a monitor. The teacher 
alone is clothed with authority, and he cannot delegate 
this to another who is not clothed with like authority. 

Keeping Control. — By virtue of the authority vested in 
him, the teacher has a right to control. He is responsible 
for the good order of the school. Just how much liberty 
he may allow his pupils depends upon his own personality. 



82 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

It is like driving a spirited team. The horses may rush 
along at a great pace, but if they yield to pressure upon 
the rein, or listen to a word of command, there is safety, no 
matter what the speed. If, however, they take the bit in 
their teeth and resist the driver's arm, there is danger even 
though the pace is not fast, because control is lost. Just 
so in the school : if the tightening of the reins of government 
by the teacher is not followed by immediate submission, 
there is danger. Never lose control of the school, no mat- 
ter what the conditions are. The teacher must often 
tighten the reins to prove whether or not the school is run- 
ning away with him. 

A Rational Relation Between Teachers and Pupils. — 

Rosenkranz teaches that authority and obedience are 
natural relations between parents and children, between 
teachers and pupils. Gordy says of the child,^ " If his 
parents and teachers are compelled by their reason to re- 
quire of him what they do, as fast as his own reason 
develops he will become aware of the fact. This will 
make him feel that all their requirements spring from the 
same source, and will strengthen his impulse towards 
obedience, — and all the more because the conscientious 
parent or teacher will be certain to be the object of enthu- 
siastic affection. But loving a person who is felt to be 
guided by reason is a long stride towards rational life ; 
whom the child loves, he wishes to resemble ; and when he 
begins to be aware that his mother is governed by reason, 
not by caprice, he begins to form a new ideal. When this 
step is taken, there is a change in the persons who are 
playing important parts in the drama of the child's life. 

1 Gordy's " A Broader Elementary Education," p. 292. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



83 



Before this the child has been governed by motives grow- 
ing out of his private self. The mother and teacher have 
been able only to appeal to his lower nature ; there has 
been nothing else to appeal to. Now the higher nature 
begins to assert itself ; the rational self becomes the ally 
of the teacher." 

But this is not all. Gordy further adds, " Not only so : 
the teacher who is guided by reason in his dealings with 
his pupils yields to its dictates because he lives a rational 
life. . . . Now the teacher who lives a rational life cannot 
fail to present to the child's imitative nature a copy which 
he will have a disposition to imitate." 

By following the suggestions of this chapter I be- 
lieve that the teacher will secure wholesome discipline, 
under which the natural relations between teacher and 
pupil will be maintained, the pupils largely governing them- 
selves, and the teacher winning for himself the lasting 
respect and affection of his pupils whom he has so wisely 
guided, and who have learned that he is their real friend. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PUNISHMENT. 

It must be stated at the outset that the purpose of 
punishment in the school is quite different from that of the 
State. The school punishes to correct and reform the in- 
dividual ; the State punishes to avenge a wrong, to satisfy 
justice, to serve as an example for others. The school 
deals with immature, irresponsible beings ; the State deals 
with those that are mature, that are capable of weighing 
their acts, that possess judgment. Indeed, so far as the 
State deals with children, it, too, seeks their reform, hence 
the maintenance of reform schools. Doubtless the State 
should give greater consideration to the question of reform 
even of its adult criminals than it does, and there is a 
tendency to do so in many sections of our country ; but to 
certain crimes there must be attached fixed penalties, and 
the State must use its strong arm to check crime by 
punishing offenders so as to be a terror to evil-doers. 
This must never be a motive in dealing with young chil- 
dren. Punishment will have the effect of warning others, 
without doubt, but the teacher's motive in administering it 
should be fixed upon the culprit whose reformation is 
sought. 

Definition of Punishment. — By punishment we mean a 
penalty imposed by some one in authority for a wrong done. 
Such penalty may be either physical or mental. Physical 

84 



PUNISHMENT. 85 

punishment is inflicted upon children whose judgment is 
still undeveloped, and when other means of appeal have no 
effect. The wisest man put the matter pithily when he 
said, " Spare the rod and spoil the child." Parents use 
physical punishment as a means of correcting their chil- 
dren, for the simple reason that children must be taught to 
mind, and are lacking in the judgment that comes with 
riper years. Whether physical punishment can be safely 
abandoned when the child has arrived at school age, 
whether the child has sufficient discernment, is mature 
enough to be free from all form of corporal punishment, 
may be seriously questioned. If more dangerous forms of 
punishment have been adopted in its stead, as is undoubt- 
edly often the case, the last state may be worse than the 
first. I purpose to discuss this question more fully later 
in this chapter. 

The most terrible punishment that can be inflicted is 
mental, that which touches the very soul. The motorman 
who through carelessness sent his car forward instead of 
backward, causing a collision with a train which resulted in 
the loss of human life, surely suffered greater anguish 
than any physical punishment could bring. Physical pain 
is but temporary, but mental pain may last for a lifetime. 
The teacher must not forget that there are wounds that 
are deeper than any rod can inflict, wounds that never heal, 
such as are caused by sarcasm, unjust suspicion, miscon- 
ception, and treachery. 

Principles Governing Punishment I wish to lay down 

a number of principles governing punishment, which, had I 
known them earlier in life, would have saved me from many 
mistakes. 



S6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

1. T/ze least punishmeitt that will accomplish the end 
is always the right punisJinient. — Seneca says : " Who 
condemns quickly, condemns willingly ; and who punishes 
too much, punishes improperly." Let not the teacher ask, 
" What does the child deserve for this offence ? " nor 
'' What punishment can I mete out that will be just } " but 
rather, " Will this be sufficient to make him see his error 
and abstain from it in the future .? " or " Will this secure his 
reformation ? " If a punishment has been imposed calling 
for restriction for a given period, and the desired end has 
been attained before the expiration of the sentence, let the 
restriction be removed. If the State can reduce a crimi- 
nal's sentence on account of good behavior, surely the 
teacher who is dealing with young children can do the 
same with them. On the other hand, this does not mean 
that punishment is to be made ineffective by its lack of 
seriousness or thoroughness. The principle stated requires 
that the end shall be accomplished. Anything less than 
this would be a travesty, and school discipline would fail 
to win respect, and might prove to be the worst kind of 
treatment that could be administered to the child. 

2. The pimishment sJiould be the sequence of the 
offence. — This is no new principle. Basil the Great in the 
fourth century taught that every misdeed should be pun- 
ished in such a way that the punishment shall be an exer- 
cise in self-command and shall tend to correct the fault. 
For example, if a child has lied, used profane language, or 
been quarrelsome, give him solitude and fasting. If he is 
greedy, let him stand by and see others eat, while he re- 
mains hungry. Rousseau would give his Emile perfect 
freedom, for the purpose of education is to set the individ- 
ual free. If he disobeys, do not punish him : disobedience 



PUNISHMENT. 87 

works its own punishment. Herbert Spencer discusses 
this principle at considerable length, and gives many illus- 
trations of its practice in the home, in school, and in life. 
He says : " Punishments we call them, in the absence of a 
better word ; for they are not punishments in the literal 
sense. They are not artificial and unnecessary inflictions 
of pain, but are simply the beneficent checks to actions 
that are at variance with bodily welfare — checks in the ab- 
sence of which life would quickly be destroyed by bodily 
injuries. It is the peculiarity of these penalties, if we 
must so call them, that they are nothing more than the 
tLTiavoidable consequejtces of the deeds which they follow ; 
they are nothing more than the inevitable reactions entailed 
by the child's actions." Again, he shows how the same 
law holds true later in life, as follows : " After home edu- 
cation has ceased, and when there are no longer parents 
and teachers to forbid this or that kind of conduct, there 
com.es into play a discipline like that by which the young 
child is taught its first lessons in self-guidance. If the 
youth entering upon the business of life idles away his 
time, and fulfils slowly or unskilfully the duties intrusted to 
him, there by and by follows the natural penalty : he is 
discharged, and left to suffer for a while the evils of rela- 
tive poverty. On the unpunctual man, failing alike his 
appointments of business and pleasure, there continually 
falls the consequent inconveniences, losses, and deprivations. 
The avaricious tradesman who charges too high a rate of 
profit loses his customers, and so he is checked in his 
greediness. Diminishing practice teaches the inattentive 
doctor to bestow more trouble on his patients. . . . And 
so on through the life of every citizen." Further he adds : 
" Is it not manifest that as 'ministers and interpreters of 



88 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Nature ' it is the function of parents to see that their 
children habitually experience the true consequences of 
their conduct — the natural reactions: neither warding 
them off, nor intensifying them, nor putting artificial 
consequences in place of them ? " 

The intelligent teacher will have no trouble in applying 
this natural law to nearly all offences that need punish- 
ment. If a child misbehaves on the playground, the 
natural sequence is to deprive him of its use; if he is 
quarrelsome on the way home from school, let him be de- 
tained until the others are gone ; if he annoys his seat- 
mates, he should be isolated from them ; if he is guilty of 
falsehood, make him feel the loss of the teacher's respect 
and confidence. Such just punishments will appeal to the 
offender as the natural sequence of his own wrong-doing, 
and will tend to make him careful not to repeat the offence, 
the consequences of which fall upon his own head. 

3. Punishment must aim to reach the individual rather 
thajt serve as an example for others. — We have seen that 
the purpose of punishment in the school is very different 
from that of the State. But there is too often a ten- 
dency on the part of young teachers to punish for the sake 
of example to others. " If I do not punish him, others will 
do the same thing," reasons the teacher. This thought 
should be dismissed in considering a case, and each indi- 
vidual child should be treated for an offence as if he were 
the only child in the school. The motives of the child, 
the temptation, the home-training, the environment, the 
temperament, all must be considered, and then the punish- 
ment that seems wise in that particular case administered. 
The same offence committed by different pupils may merit 
a different punishment in each instance, and this plan allows 



PUNISHMENT. 



89 



the teacher to choose and administer it. This may subject 
the teacher to the charge of partiality, but this charge will 
fall to the ground when it is seen that the spirit of fairness 
and justice actuates the treatment of every child. The 
pupils will soon learn that the sole motive of the teacher is 
their good, and that the careful investigation entered upon 
in each case is a warrant for honesty of purpose. It need 
not be said, after the above discussion, that while the State 
must have fixed penalties attached to each crime, no 
penalties must be attached to each anticipated offence 
among children. 

The application of these three general principles of pun- 
ishment will enable the teacher to act justly and wisely, 
and it will furnish a much broader basis of discipline than 
a set of specific directions would do. Besides this, it per- 
mits each child and each offence to be considered upon 
the individual merits of the case. It may be well, however, 
to discuss different forms of punishment, the adaptability 
of which must be left to each teacher. 

Kinds of Punishment. — In considering this question, I 
shall proceed from the simplest to the most serious forms 
of punishment, though it is admitted that owing to differ- 
ences in the temperament of children, and in their home 
training, this order will not always hold. To the child 
that is accustomed to blows at home, sometimes a word of 
kindly and earnest reproach will have far more effect than 
blows. But the order given may be taken as fairly repre- 
senting a progression in the seriousness of forms of punish- 
ment. 

I. Reproof. — Reproof shows the displeasure of the 
teacher. It may be by look or word, private or public. 



90 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

individual or general. I shall never forget receiving this 
first form of reproof many years ago. It was one evening 
in the little village church of my boyhood. It was not yet 
time for the service to begin, and a group of young people 
were laughing and chatting together, — boys and girls of 
about sixteen or seventeen years of age, — when I made a 
slighting allusion to the house of God, quite thoughtlessly, 
with no intention of being sacrilegious. A young lady 
some years our senior, whom we all loved and respected, 
was sitting with us and overheard my remark. She did 
not utter a word, but the look of surprise and reproach 
that she gave me was far more effective than words. I 
was unable even to stammer an apology. Had she said to 
me, " What ! you make such an allusion to a place set 
apart for the worship of the Almighty ! I did not expect 
it, and it grieves me beyond measure," it would not have 
cut me half so much as her mere look did. I have never 
forgotten that reproof, and the grief and shame caused by 
my thoughtless word remain indelibly impressed upon my 
memory. It is unnecessary to say that no such expression 
has ever escaped my lips from that time to this. It was 
the look of Jesus that broke Peter's heart after he had 
thrice denied his Lord, and caused him to go out and weep 
bitter tears of repentance. 

If a word of reproof must be spoken, it should not be 
in anger or with harshness. Sometimes it must be given 
with firmness, but with children it should rarely be attended 
with severity. And yet it should be plain and decisive, so 
as not to be misunderstood. There are occasions when 
reproof should be publicly administered, but generally the 
effect will be better if it be done in private. The teacher 
can come closer to the child and make him see his wrong 



PUNISHMENT. 



91 



in its true light, whereas in the presence of other children 
the pupil is more apt to be defiant. Private reproof also 
deprives the child of the support of his comrades. Gen- 
eral reproof should be administered when a large number 
are involved, or when an evil tendency that needs check- 
ing is noticed in the school. If, however, only a few are 
guilty, the reproof should be individual. 

Reproof, while the simplest form of punishment, is the 
most general, and in a well-disciplined school it will be 
about the only punishment needed. Certainly for the 
majority of the school this will be true. 

2. Isolation. — If a child proves himself incapable of 
associating with others without infringing upon their 
rights, he must be isolated from them. If in his seat he 
disturbs others, he must be seated by himself ; if on the 
playground he is quarrelsome, or bullying, his right to play 
with others is forfeited ; if in going home with his com- 
rades he creates disturbance, he must remain until they 
are gone. Isolation should not be carried to the extent of 
shutting a child in a cellar or in a dark room. A grievous 
wrong may thus be done him by rousing his fears or even 
filling him with terror. 

3. Withdrawal of privileges. — In every well-regulated 
school there are certain privileges that may be granted to 
the pupils. How many and what these are will depend 
upon local circumstances, upon the training the children 
have had, and upon the power of the teacher to keep con- 
trol. Freedom to go to the dictionary, to the waste-bas- 
ket, to get a drink, to move about the schoolroom in their 
work, may generally be allowed. It is doubtful if these 
privileges can be extended outside the schoolroom. To 
go out-of-doors at pleasure offers too great a temptation 



^2 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

to children lacking in judgment, and mischief is likely to 
follow. Each teacher, however, will be able to settle this 
question for himself in his own school. Whatever privi- 
leges are allowed, they must be regarded as of great value ; 
their misuse is a most serious offence, because it is a be- 
trayal of confidence. If their abuse is so regarded, the 
withdrawal of them becomes a severe punishment. 

4. Withdrawal of confidence. — Greater than any form 
of punishment yet discussed is the withdrawal of confidence 
by the teacher. To merit this the p-upil must be guilty of 
a most grievous offence, such as lying, cheating, stealing, 
deception, etc. The relationship between teacher and 
pupil should be so close that they have mutual confidence 
in each other. When this is true the loss of the teacher's 
confidence will be a very grave matter to the pupil, espe- 
cially as he knows that the loss was occasioned by his own 
bad conduct. When the offender is made to see the evil 
of his act, the way is open for reformation ; and complete 
confidence can be restored only when complete reformation 
has been brought about. The teacher will be glad to ex- 
tend complete forgiveness to the truly repentant, and this 
will be followed by the restoration of his confidence. 

5 . Consnlt the parents. — It is not to be understood 
that parents have not been consulted up to this point. 
There should be a perfect understanding between parents 
and teacher, not only in regard to the progress of the 
pupils in their studies, but also as to their conduct. Fre- 
quent and frank consultations should take place between 
these interested parties, thereby saving misunderstandings 
and furthering the interests of the school. By consulting 
parents, I mean that before the next form of punishment 
— that of suspension — is carried out, it is the right of 



PUNISHMENT. 



93 



the parent to know the danger that is threatened. I have 
illustrated this point in another connection (see p. 243), and 
wish further to s?y that when the conduct of a child is 
such that extreme ' aeasures are hkely to follow, the parent 
should be notified, and his co-operation solicited, in order, 
perchance, that the child may be saved. By this means a 
cure may be effected, the child retained in school, and the 
parent not be humiliated. If the parent fails to give the 
support solicited, and the evil continues, he can find no 
fault if severe measures are employed. 

6. Suspension. — When a child, through continued insub- 
ordination, becomes a menace to good order, the teacher 
has a right to resort to suspension. This right should not 
be exercised too freely. The school is for the children, and 
they should be kept there if possible. But there are times 
when the teacher's duty to his pupils demands the dismissal 
of an offender from school. If all other means have been 
tried without avail, if a pupil's conduct is inimical to good 
order, if his moral life is such as to imperil the good morals 
of other children, it certainly is the duty of the teacher to 
dismiss him from the school. We hear a great deal 
about "that bad boy." Now, there must be no relaxation 
of effort to reform and save the bad boy. The school has 
done a noble work in saving many a boy whose outside 
environment was dragging him to destruction. To many 
the school is the only hope of redemption, and therefore its 
glorious work in this respect must go on. The sympathy 
of the teacher, the example of good children, the whole- 
some atmosphere of the school, the chaste environment, — 
all these, and other influences about the school, have com- 
bined to awaken a desire in the bad boy to become good, 
and have helped him to realize that desire. Blessed is the 



94 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

influence of the right kind of a school-teacher, and blessed 
i-s the reforming power of a school imbued with noble 
ideals. 

But the good boy, the many good boys and girls, must 
not be contaminated by the immoral and evil example of a 
vicious boy. If he cannot be reformed without endanger- 
ing the morals of others, the school is no place for him ; 
he belongs in a reformatory. I repeat, this is not to be 
interpreted as a lack of interest in or abandonment of the 
bad boy to his evil ways to become a prey upon society ; 
let the teacher do his utmost to save such a child ; but it 
is a plea for the good child, that he may be kept good ; 
that he may not be lost or spoiled through evil association. 
The child already good is potentially worth as much to the 
world as the child who is bad, but who may become 
good. Surely we must not lose what already has been 
gained, for the uncertainties of saving those who are 
evil. If parents have carefully brought up their children 
and trained them to good habits, the school must not 
allow this good work to be undone ! The school must 
certainly stand for as high morals as those of the best 
homes and the community. And so I put in a strong 
plea for the preservation of the good already attained ; 
for the protection of children who come from pure homes 
and have pure ideals ; for the maintenance of high moral 
living, even if individuals who stand in the way of these 
ends must be sacrificed. A gentleman moved into a 
town where there were two schools, a public and a pri- 
vate one. Believing from principle in the public school, 
he sent his three daughters to that institution. After 
a few days, he withdrew them and placed them in the 
private school, where his tuition bill was three hundred 



PUNISHMENT. 



95 



dollars a year. "My daughters," said he, "have been sub- 
jected to vulgar language and indecent acts such as I 
could not allow under any consideration." I think that 
his rights as a citizen to the free and proper education of 
his children were infringed upon by the failure of the 
school to maintain a pure and moral tone. Those who 
wilfully and persistently prevent a moral tone should be 
removed. This must be done, or the school had better be 
closed. 

There are times when suspension must be immediate, 
such as when the pupil is defiant and refuses to obey, 
when he creates a disturbance that hinders the school- 
work ; then he must be dismissed at once, or the teacher's 
authority will be lost. But in general, suspension should 
take place only after repeated warnings, and after parents 
also have been warned. It may be well for the teacher to 
keep a private record of the conduct of especially trouble- 
some children, noting the offence committed, giving day 
and date, the punishment inflicted, etc. Children will 
report to their parents only the last offence as a cause of 
suspension. " I only touched John Jones a little with my 
foot, and the teacher sent me home," is the report. Now, 
the teacher's record shows a long Ust of offences, and his 
kicking John Jones was the " last straw." Let this record 
be shown the parent, and it will be found to be most con- 
vincing both to him and to the school trustee. It is there- 
fore an excellent protection to the teacher. It also serves 
as restraint to pupils, who dislike to have their offences 
registered. This record should be most private, and it 
should not be kept as a future witness against the men 
and women of later years. 

When a pupil is suspended, both parent and trustee 



^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

should be notified at once, and reasons therefor should be 
given to them. The school trustee is the natural friend 
of the teacher whom he has employed, and is entitled, by 
virtue of his office, to learn about important school matters 
direct from the teacher at the earliest possible moment. 

7. Exptilsioii, — In most States the final act of expulsion 
rests with the board of education, the teacher having the 
right to suspend only. What we have heretofore said 
about suspension applies equally well here, the difference 
being that expulsion is permanent, while suspension is tem- 
porary. If expulsion is necessary, the child should be sent 
to a truant or reform school. It often occurs that incorri- 
gible pupils deliberately commit acts that will cause their 
expulsion, in order that they may escape going to school, 
and be unhindered in their vagrancy. Now, if such dis- 
missal were followed by the inevitable commitment to an- 
other institution, where the restrictions were greater and 
the rules more rigidly enforced, no child would seek to be 
expelled. It would also have a most salutary influence 
upon the discipline of the school. The incorrigible child 
is dismissed from the school because he is a menace and 
a nuisance there, but too often the authorities shirk their 
duty to him and to the State by paying no further atten- 
tion to him. He is thus likely to become a worthless 
vagabond, a danger to society, when he might be saved 
to usefulness and good citizenship if he were placed under 
wholesome restraint and properly taught. I have shown 
elsewhere (p. 93) that some pupils must not be retained 
in the school when the good of the school requires their 
removal ; but the State must see to it that they are prop- 
erly instructed in suitable schools where the idea of reform 
may be carried out before they are fixed in their evil 



PUNISHMENT. 



97 



habits. The institutions for this purpose need not be 
regarded as prisons or as penal institutions, but as schools, 
to attend which does not carry a mark of shame or degra- 
dation. It is from this class of incorrigible children who 
cannot be kept in the school, and who are left free to 
spend their time in idleness and vagabondage, that the 
ranks of criminals are augmented ; and the authorities 
make a serious mistake in not properly taking care of in- 
tractable pupils when they are dismissed from the public 
school. 

Both suspension and expulsion should be applied very 
rarely, but when the good of the school demands them, 
because of continued disobedience or immoral example on 
the part of a pupil, they should be enforced without fear 
or favor. 

8. Corporal punishment. — Many States of the Union 
forbid corporal punishment in the schools. Wherever this 
is true, it only remains for the teacher faithfully to obey 
the law. The usual interpretation of the statute is that 
it refers to the use of the rod, and many teachers, there- 
fore, employ other forms of corporal punishment in order 
to secure obedience. It may be remarked that some of 
the forms of punishment adopted are far more dangerous 
and humiliating than the use of the rod. Pulling the hair 
or ears, slapping the face, jerking or shaking, surely are 
corporal punishment, and all are worse than a reasonable 
use of the rod. Even standing upon the floor, staying 
after school, writing long lists of words, are inflictions of 
bodily pain. The abolition of the rod has driven teachers 
to far more severe and humiliating punishments, such as 
sarcasm, ridicule, scolding, giving memory tasks, requiring 
long written exercises, etc. From an ethical standpoint. 



98 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



these expedients can work immeasurable and lasting harm, 
while physical chastisement with little children has the 
effect of bringing them to an immediate sense of their 
wrong-doing, and does not leave a permanent sting. Few 
who were brought up a generation ago, when the rod was 
used in the home and the school, retain bitter feelings 
towards those who administered it, unless the punishment 
was conspicuously unjust. But the biting word, the vin- 
dictive manner, the vitriolic sarcasm, left a deep impression 
that it is impossible to eradicate. 

I beheve that in certain rare cases the rod is the natural 
and humane form of punishment, both in the home and in 
the school, with young children who still lack the judg- 
ment to weigh the consequences of a wrong deed, and to 
whom the appeal of reason cannot yet be made. It is far 
better to bring them to obedience and respect for law by 
this means than to temporize and compromise with them, 
or turn them upon the street. Many children never learn 
obedience in the home, they are not brought into submis- 
sion in the school, and thus they go out into life with an 
impression that there is no authority which they must 
obey, that they are a law unto themselves. It is true 
that the great majority of children in the school recognize 
authority and yield compliance to its requirements. But 
what about the dangerous minority in the school and in 
the State for whom penal laws are made ? It is they who 
cause anxiety, who test the strength of the law, and not 
the majority. If they do not learn to respect authority, 
they will furnish recruits to the great army of criminals. 
Better far for the child to learn the lesson of obedience in 
the home or in the school than to learn it through the 
rigid, stern, and relentless authority of the State, which 



PUNISHMENT. 



99 



is strong enough to compel submission behind its prison 
doors, 

I am not arguing for a return to the old-time, brutal 
forms of punishment. There must be no brutality in our 
schools. Indeed, I would lessen it by allowing the use 
of the rod, which surely is less brutal than pulling ears, 
slapping, or "shaking up." Of course, its use should be 
hedged about with every legal precaution. Give the 
teacher the same right to use the rod that the parent 
possesses, only hold him to a stricter account than parents 
are now held in the exercise of corporal punishment. 

Let the teacher who abuses that right be punished. 
Let every case of whipping be reported at once to the 
school board and to the parents, the report giving the 
causes that led up to the chastisement, and specifying 
the kind and amount of punishment inflicted, and let a 
record of the occurrence be kept. A teacher - who is 
required to do this would be sufficiently restrained, for he 
would know that a too frequent use of the rod would be a 
confession of weakness and would subject him to criticism. 

The effect upon a school would be wholesome, for while 
the rod would be seldom used, and only as a final resort, 
the pupils would know that the right to use it had not 
been taken from the teacher. Teachers then would not 
be humiliated and defied with the insolent challenge so 
often heard from insubordinate pupils : " You dare not 
touch me ; it's against the law." The teacher would 
exercise as much judgment and wisdom as most parents 
do, and would be fully as humane in the use of this 
right as the average parent is, and therefore could be 
trusted with it. Indeed, the right to emplo)^ this means of 
punishment would almost entirely remove its necessity. 



lOO A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

and make possible the enforcement of the wholesome and 
implicit obedience which is so essential to good order in 
the school, and so vital in the preparation for good 
citizenship. 

While from a philosophical and practical standpoint the 
above, I believe, is the correct view to take of corporal 
punishment, still, so long as the law forbids it, no teacher 
should employ it, in any form, as a means of discipline. 
Even though the parent may give his consent to its 
infliction, the teacher should not accept such a responsi- 
bility, for the law of the State is higher than the parent's 
will, and his consent that the law should be violated can- 
not be valid justification to the teacher.^ 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILSA 

There are certain evils connected with every school 
that tax the ingenuity and try the patience of the teacher. 
Some of these are incident to school life merely, while 
others are of vital importance in the formation of good 
character. It is proposed in this chapter to point out the 
most glaring of these evils, and to suggest the means of 
eradicating them. 

I . Carelessness. — Slovenly dress, untidy personal habits, 
disorder about the desk, soiled and uncovered text-books, 
lack of neatness in school-work, whether handed in or 
placed on the blackboard, are some of the many forms of 
carelessness in the school. Very often home environment 
is responsible for these evils in children, but this does not 
excuse the teacher from trying to remove these habits and 
to establish good ones in their stead. One of the chief 
glories of our pubhc schools is that pupils are developed 
into noble manhood and womanhood however unfavorable 
their home conditions. Many children accustomed to 
squalor and filth, often trained to vicious habits, surrounded 

1 The topics treated in this chapter might well be considered as sub- 
heads under the principle already enunciated, namely, that the punishment 
should be the natural sequence of the offence. The importance of these 
topics, however, is such that I deem it advisable to devote a chapter to 
them. 

lOI 



I02 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in their home life by every form of degradation and sin, 
through the wise leadership and patient direction of the 
teacher are brought to throw off their home habits and 
adopt those of decent society. The example of their 
schoolmates also is very effective in bringing about this 
result. Happy the condition of a school when the teacher 
has succeeded in making cleanliness of person and neat- 
ness of dress a popular sentiment. Inexpensive and neat 
apparel is within the reach of every American child, and I 
know of no prettier sight than a classroom full of tidily 
dressed, bright-faced, happy little children. 

"What are you going to do with that paper.?" was 
asked of a boy who held in his hand a scrap of dirty paper 
containing some straggling arithmetic work. " Why, hand 
it in to my teacher," was the reply. "Do you mean to 
tell me that your teacher will accept thatV pursued his 
questioner. The boy seemed for the first time to realize 
that such work was unfit to present to his teacher. 
Evidently the teacher had failed in her duty, else it would 
have been impossible for him to offer such disreputable 
work. Careless work should be rejected at once, whether 
it be work handed in, blackboard exercises, oral recitation, 
or whatever the task. The only way to cure carelessness 
is by constant watchfulness and firmness, and by never 
accepting anything less than the child's best endeavor. 
The correction of this evil is of such importance to success 
in life that the teacher must persist in combating the evil 
until habits of tidiness and carefulness are established. 

2. Laziness. — " There never was such a thing as a lazy 
child born on earth," says Col. Parker. All young life is 
full of activity ; and if a child is not active, will neither 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



103 



play nor work, one may be sure that he is ill either in body 
or mind. Often the child that is indolent with his school- 
work is active enough on the playground; he is not there- 
fore altogether idle. While there may be no absolute 
laziness, it is certain that all men are relatively lazy ; that 
is, there are some things that they do not like to do, and 
will escape doing if possible. The mathematical expert 
might soon lay down the spade on a hot August day, while 
he would work half the night over an abstruse problem. 
On the other hand, the man inured to hard physical toil 
would labor in the ditch the whole day without ceasing, but 
would fall asleep in a few minutes over the problem. 
Now, each might be said to be lazy in one field and 
diligent enough in another. 

It is the duty of the teacher to utilize the present 
interest of the child, to lead him in to other interests 
with which he must become acquainted. It does not 
follow that because a child does not like to do a thing he 
is to be excused from doing it. Tasks must be performed, 
and one of the most valuable lessons in life is to learn to 
do what ought to be done, regardless of personal inclina- 
tion. Locke says, " The foundation of all virtue consists 
in following the dictates of reason even though appetite 
lead the other way." Moreover, it often occurs that through 
doing a required and, it may be, unpleasant task, one comes 
to like what has been held in aversion because it was not 
understood or appreciated. In every course of study there 
are subjects that the student would gladly omit, but he 
cannot do so if he is to secure a diploma at the end of the 
course. How often do the dreaded subjects become a 
delight when they are mastered and their value appreci- 
ated ! There is no royal road to learning, and the wisdom 



104 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



of educators of many generations as outlined in the course 
of study, and also that of the teacher, must give direction 
to the pupil's study. His own whims, or his indolent 
desire to proceed along the line of the least resistance, 
must be disregarded. 

The treatment of this question requires great insight 
on the part of the teacher. Having studied the child's 
interests, and discovered his favorite employment, the 
teacher must utilize this to lead him to do work which, 
perhaps, he does not like but ought to do. , Thus, if a boy 
is fond of drawing, give him special privileges in that on 
condition that he do some other work for which he has 
less liking. If he wants to devote all his time to arith- 
metic, as large boys in the country who can attend school 
only for the winter months often wish to do, show him 
that he cannot profitably spend all his time on one subject, 
and that without loss to his arithmetic work, he can also 
pursue other studies. 

Many of the great geniuses of the world have been called 
lazy. The father of Sir Joshua Reynolds wrote on one of 
his son's drawings, ''Done by Joshua out of pure idle- 
ness." Turner, the greatest of landscape painters, was 
intended for a barber ; Schiller, the great German poet, 
was destined for a surgeon ; Galileo was intended for a 
physician ; Handel was set apart for a lawyer ; James 
Watt was scolded by his grandmother because he was 
too lazy to do anything but watch the steam in the tea- 
kettle ; Darwin was considered stupid. Each of these 
men would be called lazy in the common acceptance of 
the term. Therefore, the teacher must not despair of 
the lazy child, but seek to discover his natural bent, and 
through that lead him to undertake the mastery of distaste- 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



105 



ful work which he must not be allowed to neglect or 
escape. 

3. Tardiness. — Want of punctuality is one of the most 
serious of school evils. The fault often lies with the 
home, where the late breakfast, indifference or lack of 
appreciation of the importance of punctuality, or a fail- 
ure to send the children in time, causes tardiness. There 
are many devices that can be employed to correct this evil, 
such as roll of hont>r, interesting opening exercises, class 
banner, early dismissal on Friday afternoon, awakening 
class rivalry, etc. While these may be unobjectionable 
if properly used, they are apt to be temporary in their 
effect. They are based on the principle of rewarding for 
the performance of duty. Then, too, punishments are 
inflicted, such as, compelling delinquents to make up lost 
time, to go home for an excuse, to write long lists of 
words, to commit poetry to memory, etc. Some of these 
punishments surely are not a sequence of the offence, and 
others produce an evil effect upon the child in creating a 
dislike for the means employed in his punishment. Thus, 
a hatred for poetry or material committed to memory 
might be engendered because it is used as a means of 
punishment. 

Requiring an excuse from home serves to inform parents 
of the delinquency of their children, but it is often regarded 
by them as a nuisance, while some parents will sign excuses 
for trivial causes or for none at all. Class rivalry is some- 
times carried so far as to compel pupils who are late to 
return home, they preferring to be absent for the session 
rather than lower the standing of their class. It is need- 
less to say that absence for a whole session is a worse evil 



Io6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

than a few minutes' tardiness. Teachers sometimes re- 
quire tardy pupils to write the word " tardy " five hundred 
times ; again, doors are locked at nine o'clock, and pupils 
who are late without a written excuse are required to re- 
turn home and get one, no matter how far away they may 
live or what the weather may be. Of course, by the latter 
means the teacher can secure one hundred per cent in 
punctuality, but there is neither honesty, justice, nor 
wisdom in such a practice. When the prevention of tardi- 
ness creates a greater evil, the sooner the measures 
employed are abandoned the better. 

While certain devices and forms of punishment may be 
employed in correcting the evil of tardiness, the teacher 
must seek a more fundamental principle in order effect- 
ually to cope with it. First of all, the children must be 
taught the mora] wrong of want of punctuality. Many do 
not think that being even five minutes late makes any very 
great difference. They must be shown that they thus 
infringe upon the rights of their schoolmates, that they 
cause disturbance and loss of time whenever they come 
late. Their tardiness is not merely a personal matter ; it 
affects the rest of the school, and therefore there is a 
moral side to the question which should be brought home 
to the children. In the next place, there is the business 
view. Examples should be given showing how business 
men regard want of punctuality — examples of the require- 
ments of boards of directors of great enterprises, of 
the demands of business houses and factories, should 
be furnished ; historical incidents in which great events 
have turned upon a few minutes' delay, as instanced by 
an army corps failing to be on time. Abundant illus- 
trations will occur to the teacher, and the importance of 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



107 



punctuality can thus be impressed upon the minds of the 
children. 

Let the children ask their fathers what penalty they 
must pay in case they are ten minutes late at the factory, 
and thus bring the parents to see the importance of the 
lesson in punctuality which the school is trying to teach 
their children. This brings the question to the moral and 
business basis that should be at the foundation of the 
child's habit of punctuality. It will serve to make him 
punctual from a sense of right and not for superficial 
reasons, and the habit will follow him, not only through his 
school years, but also through life. I do not condemn the 
employment of devices as a temporary means to an end, 
but plead for instruction in the fundamental principles, 
and in the reasons for punctuality. 

4. Irregularity in Attendance. — Since the ratio of aver- 
age daily attendance in our common schools is less than 
seventy per cent of the enrolment in the same,^ it will 
be seen that irregularity is a very serious evil. It is but 
fair to admit, however, that under "enrolment " are in- 
cluded all children between the ages of five and eighteen 
who attend school any time during the year. Still, many 
parents hold to the right of taking their children out of 
school at pleasure to assist at home, to help support the 
family, to make pleasure-trips, and for other unnecessary 
causes, and this occasions far more irregularity than is 
necessary. Aside from trivial causes, there is the more 
serious excuse, that of poverty at home and the need of 
the child's earnings for the support of the family. It may 

1 The United States Commissioner of Education reports 6S.5 per 
cent for the year 1 899-1 900. 



I08 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

be said that the child's right to an education is supreme, 
and the parent must not interfere with that right. It 
may also be added that it is the duty of the State to pro- 
tect the child in that right. By the enactment and en- 
forcement of factory laws concerning child labor, and by 
its laws of compulsory attendance at school, the State 
already recognizes its duty to the child. The trouble is 
that too often the State fails effectively to enforce these 
laws. It were better for its own protection and as an 
economic measure that the State should enforce regularity 
of attendance, even though it might be necessary to assist 
pecuniarily the family that is obliged to depend upon the 
earnings of a child, rather than have the child deprived of 
school privileges. One needs but to refer to the notorious 
Jukes family to illustrate the point. ^ 

The State should require regular attendance of every 
child from seven to fourteen years of age for every day 
that the school is in session. The enforcement of the law 
should not be left optional with school boards, but it should 
be obligatory under penalty of forfeiture of the apportion- 
ment of school moneys from the State to the district for 
non-enforcement. Thus, instead of finding the community 
arrayed against such a law, the board would find them 
watchful in its strict enforcement in order to avoid the loss 
of the State school funds, which would throw the heavy 
burden of the support of the school upon their own 
pockets. 

But what shall the teacher do to correct irregularity in 

1 One Jukes, who grew up in ignorance and crime, together with his 
descendants, some twelve hundred in number, cost the State over ;^ 1,2 50,000 
in trials, imprisonments, pauper charges, etc. ; that is, over ^1,000 each for 
every member of his family. 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



109 



the absence of an efficient compulsory law ? Much, cer- 
tainly, can be done. " Make the school so interesting and 
attractive that the pupils will desire to come," says one. 
This is a good theory that will work with a large part of 
the pupils, and tend to keep them more regularly at school. 
It will not work with the habitual truant who does not 
come often enough to school to catch its spirit, and who — 
make the school never so interesting — finds more fun in 
fishing, in baseball, or in the circus. You must catch your 
boy before you can interest him in school, and catch him 
long enough to break up his habit of truancy. So, while 
the theory of making the school attractive sounds well, it 
fails to reach those who most need to be reached. These 
can be influenced only by compulsory laws thoroughly 
carried out. Many of the devices mentioned in the treat- 
ment of tardiness — such as the roll of honor, class spirit, 
banners, early dismissal, excuses from parents — can be 
employed in curing irregularity. But I think we must go 
deeper for an efficient remedy, always keeping in mind the 
energetic action of the school board in carrying out the 
law. Once more, the teacher must appeal to his pupils 
from a moral and from a business standpoint. Should the 
child say, " If I am absent it is my loss, and it is no one 
else's business," he should be shown the utter fallacy of this 
position. Absence from school is a detriment not only to 
the delinquent, but also to the whole class. The rate of 
progress in a study can only be such as the class as a 
whole can sustain, and any dead weight, whether it be 
caused by dulness or much absence, serves to retard prog- 
ress. Now, justifiable absence, such as that caused ,.by 
illness, can be borne cheerfully by both teacher and pui:^s ; 
but unnecessary absence works an injustice to those who 



no A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

have been regular, and the offender should be made to see 
this fact. Thus the moral aspect should be presented and 
explained, and the children taught that they must not 
encroach upon the rights of others. 

In business affairs, irregularity on the part of employees 
leads to their discharge. No merchant or manufacturer 
will keep in his service a man who cannot be relied upon 
to be regularly in his place. This view of the matter 
should be presented to parents who often think that absence 
from school for a day or two does not matter with their 
children, but who admit that a similar absence in business 
would make a great difference. If the future man is to be 
steady and faithful in doing his duty ; if he is to be reliable 
and trustworthy ; if he is to be free from the shiftlessness 
that characterizes the tramp, — he must form right habits 
in childhood, and there is nothing like regularity of school 
attendance to establish these habits. Let the teacher util- 
ize every suitable device to secure this end, and let the 
school authorities sustain him by the employment of every 
legitimate means at their command, and there will be a 
great improvement in school attendance — and, because of 
this, also far more efficient school-work. 

5. Tale-bearing Little children are apt to be too 

ready to tattle about others. This habit will sometimes be 
checked by ignoring it, and sometimes reproof must be ad- 
ministered. Older children usually go to the other extreme, 
and refuse to " tell on " their comrades, under any and all 
circumstances. They have no conception of the difference 
between tattling and testifying. This distinction should be 
made clear to them. Tattling is telling things that are 
none of one's business for the sake of bringing others into 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. I I i 

disgrace. Testifying is giving evidence to some one in 
authority for the sake of fixing guilt where it belongs, and 
in order to serve the ends of justice. Children should be 
taught that to report an evil committed against themselves 
may be a means of self-defence and not be tattling. Thus, 
if fighting is forbidden and a boy is hectored by others, he 
must either break the rule and fight, or report to the 
teacher. If he chooses the latter course, he shows his 
respect for law, and employs the only means he has to 
secure relief. Or, if a child has lost an article by theft and 
if he discovers the guilty party, to expose him would not 
be tattling. 

When the good of the whole school is at stake, to 
report a known evil should not be regarded as tattling, 
for all are interested in the reputation of the school 
— it involves the interests of all the pupils. Two 
young ladies in a boarding-school once went to the princi- 
pal and told him hesitatingly that some of the girls were 
betraying his confidence, and that their acts not only 
affected the good name of the school, but also endangered 
the reputation of the two guilty young ladies. They felt 
that it was their duty to the school, to the offending girls, 
who were their friends, to the principal who had trusted 
them, and to themselves, to call the attention of the prin- 
cipal to the wrong being perpetrated. Now, these young 
ladies were not mischief-makers, not tattlers. They 
showed the greatest moral courage and sense of responsibil- 
ity by the course they took, and they won the highest 
respect of their principal. At the same time they saved 
their friends from ultimate expulsion and their school from 
disgrace. This high sense of honor should be cultivated 
among young people, and they should be taught that always 



112 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

to refuse to tell against a comrade, no matter what the 
offence, is not only vicious in principle, but may also work 
evil to that comrade whom they would shield. 

Shall pupils be compelled to tell when they possess knowl- 
edge of a wrong done and yet refuse to divulge it ? This 
is a very difficult question to answer. In general, the 
scruples of the pupil should be respected ; effort should be 
made to convince him of his duty to testify, and the mat- 
ter should be placed before him in its proper light. If this 
is done, absolute refusal to tell will be rare. Let me sug- 
gest a method of procedure that will practically remove all 
necessity of resorting to compulsion. In the first place, 
the teacher must be frank with his pupils. He must not 
pretend to knowledge of the guilty person that he does not 
possess. Such pretension will deceive no one, while it will 
bring the teacher into disrepute with the pupils. Some 
boys, during recess, broke a window-pane in a neighboring 
house while snowballing. The owner made complaint, and 
the principal promised to satisfy him. When school was 
called, the boys were taken into a room by themselves, and 
the principal addressed them as follows : " Boys, a win- 
dow-pane was shattered during recess at Mr. B.'s. Now, I 
do not know who did it, but presume it was an accident. 
I shall be very glad if the boy who did it will make it 
known." One of the boys arose at once and said, " I did 
it, sir." "Thank you, William, for your prompt response ; 
will you see that the damage is repaired?" "Yes, sir," 
repHed the boy. " Very well, boys. I felt sure that you 
would be frank with me. You may return to your work." 
That ended the incident, and such a course in similar cases 
would usually meet with a like result. 

The following may be suggested as the proper order of pro^ 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



113 



cedure when the perpetrator of an offence is unknown to the 
teacher : ( i ) State the offence, show its evil, point out where- 
in it may work injury to the innocent as well as the guilty, 
bring it before the school in its true light, and finally call 
upon the offender to take the responsibility of his act. (2) 
If there is no response, dismiss the matter till some future 
time, calling for a private confession. Let it be understood 
that no one else than the guilty one is to give information at 
this stage of the investigation. The whole responsibility 
is thrown upon him ; there is to be no testimony even ; 
much less, no suspicion of tattling. Should the first step 
pass without result, it will seldom occur that the second 
will not clear up the matter. For the majority of the 
school, who stand for law and order, will bring pressure to 
bear upon the offender to do his duty, because he has 
received a fair chance, and if he remains silent, he involves 
the whole school in his offence. (3) Should the guilty 
person still refuse to confess, the teacher should call atten- 
tion to the fairness of the course pursued, to the meanness 
of the unknown culprit in allowing the whole school to 
share his blame, and to the fact that if their sense of honor 
required them to withhold their knowledge of the affair, up 
to this point, that sense should now be satisfied. This will 
serve to make the offence and the offender more odious to 
the rest of the pupils, and it prepares the way for the 
fourth step, which is to invite information from any source. 
If there is a healthful sentiment in the school, the needed 
information will now be given. Indeed, the matter will 
rarely go so far as this, certainly not after the plan has 
been tried and the pupils have learned the spirit of the 
teacher. Should, however, the pupils still hold out and 
refuse to tell, all who know the guilty person become par- 



114 ^ ^^^ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

ticipators in the wrong, and may justly be held accountable. 
In the mean time the teacher has not been idle, but through 
unmistakable signs, which the experienced teacher will 
know, he will arrive at a correct judgment as to who is 
guilty. 

This method of procedure will not encourage tattling, 
but will teach children that there are times in school life, 
as in courts of justice, when to give testimony is not mean 
or debasing, but an exercise of a high moral duty. And 
this lesson ought to be taught to the pupils of our elemen- 
tary and high schools. A false and extreme notion of the 
evil of " telling on " one another has been fostered among 
children, and this should be corrected by teaching them 
that there are times when it is their duty to give testimony. 

6. Whispering. — The little child has been accustomed 
to talk freely with his mother and his playmates before 
entering school, and he is likely to continue that practice. 
Many teachers unwisely attempt to eliminate whispering 
entirely ; and by rewards and punishments, by a system of 
individual reporting at the close of the day, and by other 
devices, they seek to prevent any whispering. Now, too 
much whispering is certainly a grievous evil, which inter- 
feres in the maintenance of the two essentials of good dis- 
cipline already pointed out, namely, the protection of the 
individual and the general order of the school. Whisper- 
ing should not be regarded as an evil per se, like stealing, 
lying, cheating, etc., and the pupils should be shown the 
distinction, — it is not a sin. They should be instructed 
that any restriction of this practice is owing to the fact 
that many persons are at work in the same room, and in 
order to secure good results quiet must be maintained. 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



1^5 



Having established tliis distinction, I should seek once 
more to put the whole matter on a business basis. A 
gang of men are digging a ditch, and William wants to 
borrow a pick from John. Must he seek the boss and 
secure permission to ask John for the pick ? Such a 
course would be ridiculous ; and yet for a pupil to interrupt 
the teacher, whose attention is directed to the class he is 
teaching, to get permission to borrow a pencil from another 
pupil, is not less ridiculous. Now, if William and John stop 
work to discuss politics, or a baseball game, or even waste 
time in arguing how their work should be done, the fore- 
man would be justified in calhng them to order. So if 
pupils abuse the right to communicate by long conversa- 
tions, even though it be about lessons, or if they make too 
much noise, it becomes disorder which must be checked. 
Children should be trained freely to go about the room, 
quietly asking others for what they need, and then to re- 
turn to their own work without interrupting or disturbing 
the teacher or the other pupils. If they are interested in 
their work, if they have plenty to do, if they have been 
taught to keep employed, and if there is naturalness in the 
attitude of the children towards school Hfe, whispering can 
be allowed, and good rather than evil will follow. 

7. Lying. — This is a most serious offence, — a sin 
against God, — and great pains should be taken to impress 
its enormity upon the minds and consciences of the chil- 
dren. Temptation to lie should not be put in the way of 
children, and they should be taught that whenever they 
are guilty of wrong-doing the punishment will be lighter if 
the truth is told. Fear of punishment is usually the cause 
of lying. Some children through their home environment 



Il6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

have been taught to He, and consequently they are devoid 
of a proper sense of the seriousness of the evil. School 
children easily become addicted to falsehood in connection 
with their school-work unless great care is exercised to 
prevent the fault. They must be taught that concealment 
may be as truly a lie as an open statement, and that " a lie 
that is half the truth is ever the worst of lies." It should 
be explained that there is no such thing as a "white lie," 
that all lying is black, and evil, and wicked. 

I knew a teacher to pass by without reproof a detected 
lie because the daily program called for arithmetic ! 
There is such a thing as paying tithes " of mint, anise, 
and cummin," and omitting " the weightier matters of the 
law." Of course, the daily program is a guide for the 
work of each day, and it should not be set aside for trivial 
causes ; but when a great evil has been committed, it is 
the duty of the teacher to deal with the matter at once, 
for education is worse than evil if it is not established in 
moral principles. It need not be added that the most 
effective agency for teaching truthfulness is the absolute 
fidelity to truth both in word and act on the part of the 
teacher. 

8. Cheating. — Closely allied to lying, is cheating, and 
children should be taught that cheating is merely another 
form of lying. Pupils cheat by handing in exercises bor- 
rowed from others, as their own, and by securing unlawful 
help in tests and examinations, and in their regular 
recitations. Here again they must be shown how dishonor- 
able such practices are. Cheating must be made so odious 
that the class itself will frown upon those who attempt it. 

A class of young men in a Southern university were 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 



117 



taking an examination. They had been placed entirely 
upon their honor, the professor having given them the 
questions and left the room. An alumnus of the institution 
dropped in to witness the work, and while sitting there came 
to the conclusion that a certain young man was cheating. 
He was copying the work of another student who sat near 
him. The visitor communicated his suspicion to a member 
of the class, who upon watching the proceeding also became 
convinced that it was a case of cheating. When the pro- 
fessor came in at the close of the examination to get the 
papers, a committee of students asked him for the two sets 
of papers involved. After comparing them, and finding un- 
mistakable evidences of guilt, they at once called a mass- 
meeting of the students, and placed the facts before them. 
The young man was cited before the student-body, charged 
with cheating, and ordered to leave town before six o'clock 
that day, which he dared not refuse to do. The faculty 
had no part whatever in the proceeding. Now, this showed 
a high sense of honor among the students, and cheating 
would naturally be very rare in that institution. 

Every school should aim to reach this high ideal, thus 
making cheating unpopular, so that those who practise it 
shall be made to feel the displeasure of their schoolmates, 
rather than to think that they have done a smart thing in 
successfully deceiving their teacher. 

9. Stealing. — Like lying and cheating, stealing is a sin, 
and must be treated as such. Children should be taught 
that to take what does not belong to them, even if it has no 
more value than a pin, is stealing. A little girl four years 
old was playing in front of her home, while her mother sat 
upon the veranda. The child picked up some pieces of 



Il8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

cracked stone and put them in her basket to play with. 
When her mother discovered the stones, she said to her 
Httle daughter, " Where did you get those stones ? " " Over 
there, from Mrs. B.'s sidewalk," was the reply. "Take 
them back at once, and go to Mrs. B. and apologize for 
taking what does not belong to you," said the mother. It 
was a very small matter, when one considers the intrinsic 
value of the property, but not a small matter as a lesson to 
the child. Children have no conception of values, and the 
mother acted wisely in requiring her little girl to return 
what she had taken and what did not belong to her. A 
German father was walking with his two young daughters 
through a neighbor's orchard on the way to his own fruit- 
trees. He observed one of his daughters help herself to 
a plum that was lying under the neighbor's tree. After 
reprimanding her for what she had done, he went to his 
own trees, took two plums, and sent his child to put them 
in the place from which she had taken the first plum. A 
small matter, one might hastily say ; a large matter when 
one thinks of the lesson taught. And in this very particu- 
lar, that of stealing fruit, it is a lesson that American 
children should learn. In Professor Stoy's school-grounds 
at Jena there was a number of fruit-trees. One day as I 
passed into the school, I saw some beautiful, ripe pippins 
lying under the trees, which none of the boys touched. It 
was, to me, such a remarkable circumstance, that I men- 
tioned it to the principal. He looked at me in astonishment 
and said, " Why, how can they take those apples ? They do 
not belong to them ! " Our children ought to learn the 
meaning of mine and thine, even in small things. 

A few children come from homes where the" wrong of 
stealing is not recognized ; indeed, some are even taught 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. II9 

to Steal. Hence it will be necessary to teach them first 
principles. Let no temptation be thrown in their way ; 
lunch-baskets should be placed where stealing is im- 
possible. Children do not always steal lunches because 
they are hungry, but often because they want to try the 
dainty things that some other child has brought. Even if 
hunger impels, stealing lunches cannot be condoned ; the 
child who suffers loss of his dinner also has rights that 
must be protected. By frequent talks, by picturing the 
great evil of stealing, by punishing those who are guilty, 
the enormity of this sin must be brought home to the con- 
sciences of the children. 

10. Impudence. — This evil shows itself both in manner 
and in word. Impudence in manner may be just as real 
and just as offensive as the saucy word, but to describe it 
to parents or to the trustees is hard. Making faces, 
sticking out the tongue, insolent leering, shrugging the 
shoulders, are as truly impudent as any word that might 
be spoken. Neither form of impudence should be toler- 
ated by the teacher, but prompt and vigorous treatment 
should follow, both for the child's sake and for the sake 
of the discipline of the school. The teacher that allows 
impudence from his pupils will soon lose their respect, and 
his control of the school will be irretrievably lost. Noth- 
ing will sooner bring him into contempt before both the 
children and the community. Therefore, energetic and 
summary punishment must follow any attempt on the part 
of the pupil to be impudent. 

11. Rebellion. — When a child openly defies the teacher, 
when he rebels against authority, when he refuses to obey. 



I20 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

he must be summarily dealt with and without hesitation. 
This is no time for the teacher to show weakness, nor is 
there need of his doing so. The law of the State clothes 
him with ample authority, and the community must sus- 
tain him in its fullest exercise. If a pupil cannot be 
subdued, he must be removed, even if outside help must 
be summoned. No school- work can be done until the 
rebellious pupils are brought into complete submission or 
removed from the school. In a school on the seacoast a 
rough young fellow who spent his summers at sea entered 
school for two or three winter months. He seemed to 
think from the outset that there was no force in the school 
sufficient to command his obedience, and therefore he set 
at defiance all regulations, and utterly ignored the princi- 
pal's directions. He was suspended from school, and his 
case referred to the school board. The next morning he 
was early at school, without having seen the school author- 
ities and without permission from any one. "What are 
you doing here ? " asked the principal. " I am coming to 
school; this is a free school," was his reply. "You can- 
not remain here until you bring a written permit from the 
president of the board," firmly said the teacher. The 
youth rapped his knuckles on the desk, and said, "This 
is my seat, and I propose to occupy it." The bell rang, 
and he took his place in the Hne in the hall with the rest 
of the pupils preparatory to marching in. The principal 
stepped between him and the door, and said, " You cannot 
go into this room. Now, I will give you a final warning. 
You have already made yourself liable to a twenty-five- 
dollar fine, or imprisonment, or both, according to the law 
of the State, for disobedience and rebellion. If you do 
not leave at once without further disturbance I shall take 



THE TREATMENT OF SCHOOL EVILS. 121 

out a warrant for your arrest, and prosecute you to the full 
extent of the law." The young man wisely took the 
warning, withdrew at once, and gave no further trouble. 

The law in all the States fully sustains the teacher in 
maintaining order. Parents and school boards will uphold 
the teacher in prompt and radical measures in cases of 
rebellion, for all recognize that there can be no success 
with the school unless the authority of the teacher is up- 
held. Cases of rebeUion are much more rare than in 
former times when brutal punishments aroused resistance, 
when teachers were ignorant and unskilled in the manage- 
ment of schools, and when public sentiment sustained the 
pupils in acts of insubordination and rowdyism. 



CHAPTER X. 

SCHOOL VIRTUES. 

The principal school virtues are regularity, punctuality, 
neatness, silence, accuracy, industry, obedience, truthful- 
ness, fidelity to duty, honesty, and politeness. Having 
discussed the negatives of some of these virtues, they may 
be passed by with mere mention. When we have cured 
irregularity, tardiness, dishonesty, lying, etc., we shall have 
the virtues that are the antitheses of these vices. Em- 
phasis, however, may be laid upon the positive side of 
some of these, in order to add to the clearness of the 
subject. 

I. Neatness. — Great care should be taken to train 
children to habits of neatness. We have seen how this 
is done with regard to dress, written exercises, etc. The 
care of the seat, of text-books, and of school property calls 
for vigilance and frequent reminders on the part of the 
teacher. Every exercise placed on the blackboard or 
written upon paper must be an example of neatness. One 
of the chief advantages of school-work prepared for public 
exhibition is that it teaches the pupils neatness, for slovenly 
papers will necessarily be rejected. For this reason alone 
such exhibits are worth all the time and trouble they cost. 
Thus, exhibits to be placed about the schoolroom, to be 
sent to teachers' gatherings, to be prepared for State and 
national expositions, should be encouraged. 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



123 



There is a universal practice in German schools of 
requiring most of the written work done by pupils to be 
written in ink, in note-books prepared for that purpose. 
This practice begins in the second or third year, as soon 
as the children can write. Thus, in the common schools 
one will find a set of note-books for arithmetic, another for 
geography, for history, for spelling, for language- work, for 
botany, and so on for each subject pursued. The child 
forms the habit of neatly entering his work on the first 
trial, for it cannot easily be erased. These note-books are 
remarkable for their neatness and accuracy. They also 
show the visitor as well as the teacher exactly what prog- 
ress is being made. If an inspector visits the school, he 
always wants to see these exercise-books, and they afford 
an excellent criterion by which he may judge the efficiency 
of the work done. It takes the pupil rather more time at 
first, but the principle acted upon is, " Whatever is worth 
doing at all is worth doing well." I know of no better 
means than this of cultivating the habit of neatness in 
school children. 

2. Accuracy. — Much the same plan employed in teach- 
ing neatness can be used in teaching accuracy. The child 
must learn to put his work down correctly the first time, 
or he will be required to do it over again. While rapidity 
is desirable, it must not be sought at the expense of accu- 
racy or neatness. Not only the written work, but also the 
statements in oral recitation, must be accurate. Looseness 
of statement is not very far removed from lying. It also 
is detrimental to logical thinking. Rosenkranz says : 
"The fostering of the sense of truth, from the earliest 
years up, is the surest way of leading the pupil to gain 



124 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



the power of thinking." Hence in training the pupil to 
accuracy in all forms of school-work, the habit of truthful- 
ness as well as that of logical thinking is being established. 
Perhaps mathematics, which is an exact science, is the best 
means of illustrating the value of accuracy. Thus, a mis- 
take of one figure three or four places removed from the 
unit's place would mean a difference of thousands or tens 
of thousands. An illustration of this kind would be power- 
ful in convincing the child who thinks that a mistake of 
but one figure in his example should not count for much. 
Other illustrations may be given from actual life, such as 
the bank cashier's duty accurately to balance his cash 
account even to the cent, or the accountant's in balancing . 
his books. 

3. Silence. — It is not necessary to be able to hear a pin 
drop in the school at any time during the day, but there 
are times when absolute silence should be maintained. 
During the morning exercises, whenever the teacher 
or a visitor is speaking, whenever it is called for, pupils 
must remain absolutely silent. This is an important lesson 
for them to learn, and it is not repression by any means. 
So much has been said in recent years in criticism of the 
old-time school, which required the children to sit erect, 
toe the mark, fold the hands, keep still, that the modern 
school often goes to the other extreme and requires no 
exact discipline. As a result of this, children at church 
or at public gatherings often disturb everybody in their 
neighborhood by their restlessness and their inability to 
keep quiet even for a short time. There are two lessons 
that children need to learn : first, to respect the rights of 
others, and to know that their own wishes and whims are 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



125 



not supreme ; and second, to understand that there arc 
times when they must be silent. Both of these lessons 
should be taught in the school ; and the second can be 
taught by requiring at certain times, whenever demanded 
by the teacher, absolute and respectful silence. 

When silence is demanded, the pupils must sit erect 
with nothing in their hands, in the attitude of quiet atten- 
tion. This may not be required for a long time with little 
children, but so long as it is required, it should be perfect. 
A very important lesson in life will thus be inculcated. It 
may be necessary with little children to require the hands 
to be folded to prevent their getting into mischief. But 
the arms should never be folded behind the back, as it 
throws the body into an unhealthful, unnatural, and un- 
comfortable position. The hands may be clasped in front, 
but even this should be avoided if possible. A natural and 
easy position should be sought, and freedom of the hands 
allowed until experience proves the necessity of folding 
them. 

The teacher should never rap loudly on the desk, or tap 
the bell violently, or shout, in order to secure silence. I 
once knew a teacher who would bring a heavy ruler down 
upon the desk with a crash that would at first startle his 
pupils. He created more noise and disorder than the pupils 
did, and they soon paid but little attention to him. Another 
teacher would pound her bell with such vigor, sometimes 
with anger, that, as a result, she needed a new one every 
few weeks. These methods only aggravate the evil and 
cause confusion. A quiet tap of the pencil, a slight touch 
of the bell, an incisive but not loud word, will accomplish 
the purpose and bring the room to quiet far more readily 
than will violent demonstrations. The teacher's manner 



126 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

does much to secure silence. When silence is called for, 
it should be promptly attained, and it should be absolute 
for the time required. It will be found that where children 
are trained to proper habits of silence, it will prove a most 
valuable aid to the general order in the school ; and such 
training will also have a salutary effect upon the children 
in their conduct in the society of others outside of the 
school. 

4. Industry. — The healthy child is naturally active. If 
his activities are not properly employed, he is sure to get 
into mischief. Hence the importance of training him to 
be industrious in the right direction. From the beginning 
of school life, the child should be taught to employ himself. 
Idleness must be treated as an evil that is not to be toler- 
ated. So long as the pupil is interested, there will be no 
trouble about keeping him employed ; hence the teacher 
must keep him interested in his work. But even this 
interest must be directed, or there will be waste of time 
and misuse of energy. 

First of all, the pupil must perform his required tasks. 
He must be taught to do these, even though they are not 
his choice, before he is allowed to take up those more to 
his taste. Here is an excellent opportunity to train the 
child in doing his duty. What he ought to do must be done 
rather than what he likes. There are always some bright 
children in the school, who are able to accomplish their 
allotted tasks much quicker than others, and it is these 
who are likely to get into mischief. The teacher should 
have plenty of reserve work for these children which 
they should be allowed to do when their regular work 
is done, and which they can perform unaided. Such 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



127 



devices as the following can be employed : drawing, paper- 
cutting, using splints, dissected maps, for little children ; 
and reading from encyclopaedias and reference-books con- 
cerning men, inventions, events, etc., for older children. 
A list of interesting topics might be kept in a box or on a 
bulletin-board, which the pupils should be allowed to inves- 
tigate whenever they have leisure. Houses that sell 
school supphes have plenty of devices for busy-work, and 
the teacher can easily construct others to meet special 
needs. There could be a box each for history, biography, 
problems, literature, science, current events, etc. Ques- 
tions might be written on small cards, which the pupils 
should be allowed to draw out, and to which they should 
find the answers. Such interest may be aroused in this 
work that the teacher possibly will be obliged to limit it to 
prevent the pupils from neglecting their regular school- 
tasks. 

The versatile teacher will find an abundance of material 
with which to prevent idleness ; and idleness, the pupils 
must be brought to know, is a vice not to be tolerated. 
This training will forestall mischief and prevent disorder. 
Better still, it will establish important habits of life. The 
man who has learned to employ himself is not likely to 
seek the saloon to while away his hours of idleness, for he 
has no such hours. To him the life of the vagrant or 
tramp can have no attractions. 

5. Truthfulness. — Although I have discussed the neg- 
ative side of this topic, its importance is so great that it 
seems wise also to consider the positive side. First of all, 
the child should be taught to be true to himself, that not- 
withstanding he may deceive others, he cannot get away 



128 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

from himself. Children who would scorn to prevaricate 
outside of school will often act and speak untruths in con- 
nection with their school life. Somehow they think of 
the school as another life, where the conditions are differ- 
ent, where to deceive the teacher is smart, and where to 
cheat and escape detection are evidences of shrewdness. 
Parents themselves are often to be censured for these 
misdemeanors. They boast, in the presence of their chil- 
dren, of the tricks they themselves played when in school, 
and their children attempt not only to imitate their ex- 
ample, but to go just a little farther than their parents 
went. I have known children out of school to be the soul 
of honor, but in school to cheat, act falsehoods, deceive 
their teacher, and perform other immoral acts with a per- 
fectly innocent air, and with but few conscientious scruples. 
It is needless to say that this showed that the school had 
sadly failed in its duty. A close investigation in a par- 
ticular case proved that this evil condition was fostered 
by the practice of the teacher in charge, who winked at 
lying, assisted his pupils in cheating, and then perjured 
himself in his report to the Regents. Many children who 
were brought under his baneful influence acquired habits 
of falsehood which not only affected their school life, but 
which were not lost when they went out into the world, as 
their later history proved. 

In the next place, the pupil should be taught to be true 
in act as well as in word. Many a person will passively 
assent to things in which he does not believe, and concern- 
ing which, were a positive act required, he would record 
himself quite differently. An evangelist was making an 
appeal to a Sunday-school. He asked all teachers who 
were desirous of the conversion of their scholars to stand. 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. I 29 

All stood. " Now," said he, '*all of you who are willing 
to go to perdition for the sake of the salvation of your 
scholars, remain standing." All remained standing. I do 
not suppose that a single teacher would have risen, would 
have performed an act, in response to this latter unscrip- 
tural and monstrous appeal ; but all passively assented to 
it by remaining on their feet, much to their later chagrin. 
If mature persons will passively assent to a wrong thing, 
much more may we expect that children will do the same. 
Perhaps some who are more conscientious may think to 
save themselves from falsehood by a mental reservation. 
Emphasis should be laid upon the act that deceives as well 
as upon the spoken word, and children need definite 
instruction on this point. 

Once more, children sometimes tell falsehoods, and sat- 
isfy their consciences by using some talismanic expression, 
such as " Rubber," " Over the left," etc., uttered, it may 
be, in an undertone, or by making some mysterious sign. 

Children should be taught the wrong of such things, and 
they should be shown that no incantation can remove the 
character or wickedness of deception. There are persons 
whose sense of truth has become so blunted through care- 
less speech, as well as by deliberate lying, that one is 
never sure they are telling the truth. Against such in- 
difference our pupils must be carefully guarded ; and the 
school is a most important agency for cultivating the 
virtue of sincere, open, active, and passive truthfulness. 

6. Regard for Duty. — In our eagerness to make tasks 
light and school life happy, there is danger that we may 
fail to acquaint children with the more serious realities of 
life. The methods employed should be the very best, — 



IJO 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



those that take into account the development of the child 
on the one hand, and the natural and correct treatment of 
the subject on the other. But, as we have seen elsewhere, 
no method can be devised that liberates the pupil from 
self-exertion, that frees him from work. In and through 
this self -exert ion there is abundant opportunity to train the 
child to do his duty. There are some things in life that, 
however unpleasant they may be, must be done because duty 
demands it. All through life men are obliged to face irk- 
some tasks, and therefore the child must be trained not to 
shirk duty. Those who have never been taught to fulfil dis- 
tasteful duties are ill prepared to cope with life's problems. 
The parent or the teacher who shields the child from work 
that is within his strength, or stands between him and the 
difficulties that he ought to overcome, is not performing 
for him a friendly service, but a great wrong instead. 
The lesson of duty to others and to himself should early 
be inculcated in the life and character of the child, so that 
he may form the habit and accept the principle of doing 
right because it is right and because he wants to do right. 

7. Politeness. — Politeness is a virtue not only of the 
home and society, but also of the school. If, as Matthew 
Arnold says, " Conduct is three-fourths of life," and if 
true politeness is an external evidence of conduct, a very 
important duty is corhmitted to the school to cultivate this 
virtue. Surely every teacher has at heart the future well- 
being of his pupils, and if politeness is so important to suc- 
cess in life, is it not worthy of more attention in the 
schools than it gets ? 

Real politeness is unselfishness. Thus, if a person yield 
his seat to another, stand aside to let some one else go 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



131 



before him, pick up an object that somebody has dropped, 
go out of his way to show some other person a favor, he 
performs an unselfish, a polite act. The selfish thing 
would be to keep the seat, go first, let some one else pick 
up the object. Every act of genuine politeness is an act 
of unselfishness. Hence the teaching of politeness is the 
teaching of a cardinal virtue. 

Again, Rosenkranz says : '* Politeness is the virtue of civ- 
ilization." According to this definition a man is civilized 
just in proportion to his practice of the recognized forms of 
behavior in society. Politeness is an evidence not only of 
good breeding, but also of intelligence, and of a comphance 
with the requirements of civilized life. Emerson says : 
" Give a boy address and accomplishments, and you give 
him the mastery of palaces and fortune wherever he goes ; 
he has not the trouble of owning or earning them ; they 
solicit him to enter and possess." 

It rests upon the school, then, to give attention to this 
essential of proper education, far more attention than it has 
been giving. This leads me to offer the following sugges- 
tions in teaching this virtue : 

I. Inculcate the spirit of politeness. — This spirit has 
already been defined as unselfishness. If politeness is a 
mere form, it is superficial, and does not reach the moral 
end sought. The act must not be performed because the 
eye of the teacher is upon the child, or for the sake of 
reward, or to win approval. Thus, when the teacher says, 
" I want you always to lift your hat when you meet me. 
It is polite to do so," he is not inculcating the spirit of 
politeness. The children associate the act with the teach- 
er's authority, and consider it a school requirement. Only 
when they have learned to lift the hat or perform the po- 



1^2 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

lite act to any and every person to whom it is due have 
they caught the spirit of pohteness. I saw a young girl 
in a crowded car arise and offer her seat to a feeble old 
gentleman, a stranger to her. *' Here, sir, please take my 
seat," she said. " Oh, no, daughter," said the old man, 
" keep your seat ; I can stand." The girl insisted until he 
took the seat. Now, that young girl possessed the spirit 
of true politeness. A number of boys from twelve to fif- 
teen years of age, together with three of their teachers, 
were standing on a street corner one day after school wait- 
ing for a car. When the car stopped, every boy sprang 
aboard ahead of the ladies, took possession of the vacant 
seats, and let the teachers stand. Here was neither the 
spirit nor the form of politeness. And yet these boys 
came from good homes and were very polite to their teach- 
ers in tJie schoohvom. But they were ill-bred, because their 
knowledge and their practice of politeness had not reached 
deep enough to make them thoughtful and unselfish. If 
one possess the real spirit of politeness, it will not be like 
a garb that can be put on or off as occasion may offer, but 
it will be a part of one's life, manifesting itself at all times 
and to all persons. 

2. Teach the foi^ms of politeness. — There are certain 
established forms of politeness which one cannot ignore. 
No one may be a law unto himself. Whatever is the 
accepted usage should be received and followed. This may 
vary in minor details in different countries, but he who is 
possessed of the spirit of politeness, and is observant as to 
the forms of etiquette which people of culture practise, 
will have no trouble in adjusting himself to any conditions. 
There is a sense in which the maxim, " While in Rome one 
must do as the Romans do," can be approved. In visiting 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



^33 



a foreign country persons will save themselves embarrass- 
ment and even humiliation by observing this rule. 

To portray just what should be taught in our schools is 
rather difficult. Details must be sought for in books on 
etiquette. A few commonplace matters may be mentioned. 

a. How to give and receive an introductiojt. — Unless 
children are instructed in these forms they are apt to be 
boorish, and if they are at all sensitive, they will suffer 
mortification. Education here can be acquired only by 
practising the aphorism of Comenius, " We learn to do 
by doing." I have seen teachers in the kindergarten place 
a child in front of his schoolmates, and direct another to 
bring forward other children and go through the form of an 
introduction. They were taught to do this gracefully, and 
I thought it was one of the most valuable exercises I ever 
saw in school. Many parents wisely attend to this in the 
home, and it saves their children from future embarrass- 
ment. There is nothing more beautiful than to see a 
young child when introduced step forward, offer the hand, 
and with a graceful bow say, " How do you do .f* " There 
is nothing, on the other hand, more distressing than to 
observe a child when introduced hang his head and act 
sheepish. The disposition of some children to do these 
things often leads to increased bashfulness ; their conduct 
in this matter is usually due to ignorance of what is the 
right thing to do. If the child is bashful, there is no better 
means of overcoming this weakness than by training him 
in the forms of introduction. 

Another feature of this question should be cultivated 
among American people, and that is, how to introduce 
one's self. It sometimes occurs that there is no interme- 
diary to pass the name of the one to the other. Not long 



134 ^ ^^^ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

ago I went into a schoolroom in a large school of one of 
our great cities. Stepping up to the gentleman in charge 
of the room, I said, " My name is S." *' How do you do, Mr. 
S. ? " was the greeting, with no indication that I was en- 
titled to know his name in response to my introduction. I 
have observed in foreign countries that if two persons are 
brought into close contact in a railway compartment, at 
table, or on an excursion, it will not be long before one will 
say, "My name is B," and the other will respond at once, 
"My name is A." This mutual introduction breaks down 
barriers and opens the way f on pleasant *' intercourse and 
good-fellowship. Even ladies are not excluded from this 
etiquette, and it does not expose them to insult, or bring 
against them the charge of forwardness. 

b. Table manners, — Discretion must be used in teach- 
ing table manners, else parents will interpret the criticism 
that their children bring home as aimed at themselves. In 
kindergartens where a lunch is served and where table 
furniture is provided, definite instruction can be given at 
the most favorable time of life. Attention can be called 
to the most common matters of table etiquette from time to 
time without awakening antagonism or causing any one 
to feel that personal criticism is intended. Confucius says, 
" Eat at your table as you would eat at the table of the 
king." 

c. Lifting the hat. — Boys should be taught to observe 
the practice of well-bred men. Moreover, as shown else- 
where, they should be taught to uncover the head to others 
as well as to their teacher. 

d. When to excicse ones self. — Children are not to 
be taught indiscriminately, " Always excuse yourself when- 
ever you pass in front of a person." I once witnessed a 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



135 



march in a schoolroom in which every child that passed 
me repeated the words, " Excuse me." There was no 
sense in this proceeding, and not one of the children 
gained the slightest idea thereby as to when he should 
excuse himself. They were discharging a duty which left 
them no alternative ; it was necessary for them to march in 
front of me. Only when a person interferes with or dis- 
commodes another should he excuse himself. 

e. When to give place to others. — In passing through 
doors, in street-cars, in crowded assemblages, there are 
abundant opportunities to show politeness, and these 
opportunities do not occur to men alone. By a simple 
"Thank you!" by moving up when people are standing 
and there is room for another, even by yielding her seat 
to one whose necessity is greater than hers, a woman has 
opportunity to show good breeding. And this is the 
politeness, practised by either sex, that is the highest form 
of unselfishness. 

f. Respect for older persons. — At the sesqui-centennial 
at Princeton in 1896, the President of the United States 
stood on a platform in front of old Nassau Hall and 
reviewed the great line of alumni as they marched by. 
First came the class of '96 with its hundreds of shouting 
young fellows, then the class of '95, followed by the other 
classes in order down through the 90's, 8o's, 70' s, 6o's, 
etc., the ranks growing thinner according to the age of 
the class. As the gray-haired, halting veteran representa- 
tives of the noble old college passed the stand. Presi- 
dent Cleveland uncovered his head as a token of re- 
spect for old age, and remained uncovered in the chilly 
night-air until the last man had slowly filed by. It was 
a beautiful tribute of respect, and it was a lesson in 



136 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

politeness that millions of American children might well 
learn. 

A body of celebrated men were sitting about a table in 
a German city listening to an address from one of their 
number. The door opened, and an aged man came in. 
The speaker ceased at once, and every man rose to his 
feet and stood until the old gentleman had taken his seat. 
It was Alexander von Humboldt, and the tribute of 
respect was to the old man as well as to the great 
scientist. It is a universal practice in German schools for 
the whole body of pupils to rise upon the entrance of a 
visitor and remain standing until the visitor is seated. I 
know of no exercise that is productive of better results in 
teaching politeness than this. One school in this country, 
at least, follows the" practice of receiving the formal intro- 
duction of a visitor on the platform by rising in a body. 
It is a most beautiful and impressive spectacle — one that 
never fails to awaken deepest pleasure in the person thus 
greeted. I believe that the general adoption of this 
practice would materially aid in bringing about the reforms 
for which I am pleading in this chapter. 

Children should be taught to reverence old age without 
regard to station, dress, sex, or other circumstance. They 
should be taught this for their own sakes, as well as for 
the sake of those who begin to feel that they are in the 
way in the world. Well might American children learn 
from the ancient Jews, from the Spartans, the Persians, 
the Romans, and also from the Germans, to revere the 
hoary head, and to show respect to their seniors. 

g. Respect for those in authoiity. — The fact that a 
man has been chosen to represent his community or his 
country in a political position, ought to win respect for 



SCHOOL VIRTUES. 



^37 



him. It is deplorable that newspapers, partisans, and citi- 
zens generally, so often speak in terms of disrespect con- 
cerning those that have been chosen to rule over them, 
usually because they belong to the opposite party. Persons 
who are unworthy of respect should never be named for 
office ; and when a person has been elected, it is the duty 
of the people to recognize him as representing authority, 
and, therefore, as worthy of respect. It is unseemly in a 
great country like ours, that candidates for our highest 
offices, in a political campaign are held up to ridicule. It 
shows a lack of respect for the dignity of the office when a 
candidate is spoken of as "Bill," "Teddy," "Jim," or 
*'■ Tom." These things are bad for children, who, through 
the disrespect shown to the persons representing authority, 
easily learn to have little respect for law and authority. 

Besides these things that I have mentioned, there are 
many others that will occur to the teacher, such as the 
treatment of one's own family, of servants, of employees, 
etc. A book on etiquette will not only suggest topics, but 
will also furnish details of how to treat them. 

Both the spirit and the form of politeness are essential, 
— the spirit, which is the essence of true politeness, being 
unselfishness ; and the form, which embodies the conven- 
tionalities of society and of life. Training in both of these 
will materially aid the child in meeting the duties of life, 
and winning success. 

The exercise of the virtue of politeness will aid in dis- 
cipline, promote happiness, further good-fellowship, and 
increase the efficiency of the school itself. It is not only 
invaluable in one's intercourse with others, but it is a most 
important virtue in the ideal school. " Courtesy gives its 
owner passport round the globe." 



CHAPTER XL 

SCHOOL MORALS. 

The school should stand for the highest morality, and 
parents should be able to feel that in committing their 
children to the charge of the school, no risks are run. The 
transition from the environment of the home to that of the 
school is very great. Surely the school, under charge of 
the kind of teacher we have demanded in Chapters I. and 
II., should not be less pure than the home. If there is 
indifference as to moral ideals ; if there is looseness in prac- 
tice, vulgarity in speech, indecency in act ; if there is not 
a high moral tone, — it were better to close the school, no 
matter how efficient its work may be in other respects. 
The whole moral tone of a community can be uplifted by 
the purity of morals of the school ; on the other hand, lack 
of high moral ideals in the school may debase a whole 
community. 

Character of the Teacher. — All the moral influence of 
the school centres around the life and character of the 
teacher. The children learn to think as he thinks, to act 
as he acts. A young teacher's influence for temperance 
in a village was so great that every saloon was closed. It 
was not so much what he did outside of school, as his influ- 
ence upon his pupils, who in turn led the irparents to vote 
against license. Nor did he discuss the license question 

138 



SCHOOL MORALS. I39 

in school ; but his strong, moral life left no doubt in the 
pupils' minds as to what his attitude upon the liquor ques- 
tion must be, and his pupils believed as he did. The gain- 
ing of such a powerful influence over the lives of his pupils 
by a teacher so that they are ready unquestioningly to follow 
him, brings a proportionate responsibility, but a blessed 
opportunity to do good when one's own life is pure is also 
presented. The teacher with lofty ideals which he carries 
out in the school and in the community, is the most potent 
factor in fixing the high ideals of society. It was the char- 
acter of Arnold of Rugby, rather than his methods of 
instruction, that shaped the lives of his boys and left a 
permanent moral impress upon the leaders of England 
which will be an influence for good for many generations. 
No effective moral instruction can be given in the school 
unless the teacher is wholly sound in his moral life. 

Importance of Moral Instruction. — Between the years 
1875 and 1895 the attendance in the schools of England 
increased from 1,500,000 to nearly 6,000,000 pupils. 
During the same time the number of arrests per annum of 
juveniles decreased from 14,000 to 5,000. The only dis- 
cernible cause of this decrease is the influence of the 
schools, a most remarkable commentary on the moral effect 
of keeping children at school. France has recently adopted 
a regular course of moral instruction in all her schools as 
the most potent means of checking immorality in the 
nation. It is not to be gathered from this that we advocate 
the introduction of moral training as a regular part of the 
curriculum, or that we would give it a fixed place in the 
daily program. The danger of this is that the pupils will 
regard themselves as being ''preached at," and will fortify 



140 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

themselves against the teaching, thereby destroying the 
effect intended. But nevertheless the teacher must have 
a plan of teaching morals that will touch every phase of 
life and embrace all of the important ethical questions. 
Great wisdom will be needed in formulating such a scheme. 
If the teacher appreciates that all teaching is vain and 
worse than vain if it is not based on ethical foundations, if 
he recognizes that character-building is the great aim of 
education, if he possesses a keen sense of the importance 
of the subject, he will not be at a loss for abundant mate- 
rial for lessons in morals. In every lesson taught, in all 
of the relations of the pupils to each other and to him, in 
discipline, in the very atmosphere of the school, the teacher 
will find opportunities for moral instruction. While there 
may be no formulated course of study, in the mind of the 
teacher and in his plan, the teaching of morals will be 
systematic and wholesome. This teaching is the under- 
lying purpose of the school, and those who support it and 
send their children to it have a right to expect that this 
purpose shall be fulfilled. 

How to Teach Morals. — If the need of moral instruction 
is recognized, the next question is, What shall be the plan 
of carrying it out ? I submit the following suggestions : 

I. Utilize every school interest for moral ends. — In the 
chapters on school evils and school virtues I have tried to 
bring the final treatment of each topic discussed to a moral 
basis. Thus, in overcoming tardiness and irregularity, 
bring the child to see that he is infringing upon the rights 
of others ; in controlling whispering, show him that the 
individual or the school may not be disturbed ; in inculcat- 
ing politeness, selfishness is checked. The child is to be 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



141 



punctual, regular, honest, truthful, obedient, faithful to 
duty, because it is right to be so, and not for the sake of 
reward. Lessons are to be learned, the rights of others 
respected, and duty is to be performed, from a sense of 
moral obligation. Accuracy of work, honesty in doing 
tasks, generosity towards those that are less favored, fair- 
ness in school sports, charity for the weakness of others, 
are virtues that may be constantly utilized in school life, 
and made to have a most stimulating moral influence. 
There is not a phase of school life, either in the schoolroom 
or on the playground, that may not be employed for moral 
ends. The wise and conscientious teacher will not fail to 
make use of this material, without, however, advertising 
his purpose to his pupils. Little need be said about moral 
instruction, but the teacher will impart it by word and act, 
by the silent and yet ceaseless vigilance of one who fully 
comprehends its need, and who has a proper conception of 
the meaning of education. 

2. Do not neglect the physical side of the child's life. 
— Physical peculiarities often indicate a person's moral 
attributes. The slouchy gait of the tramp furnishes more 
than a hint as to his moral character. A well-set-up body 
commands respect. It also makes self-respect possible, 
and without self-respect there is no such thing as moral 
character. There is certainly a close relation between the 
physical and the moral. I once saw, in the city of Berlin, 
a squad of raw recruits just being mustered into the army. 
They came from the farm, the workshop, the bench ; and 
their stooping shoulders, crooked legs, awkward carriage, 
indicated that their early life had been one of hard toil. 
The expression of their faces and their uncouth manner 
gave evidence of dulness, and one might almost say 



142 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



indifference to all of life's interests. A few months later 
I saw the same young men under drill at Potsdam. They 
had been through the rigid discipline of the soldier's life 
during these months, and it was marvellous to note the 
change in their physical appearance. The bent shoulders 
and crooked legs had been straightened, the slouchy gait 
had been changed into the firm movement and easy car- 
riage of one who has learned to bring the body under 
control of the will, all slovenliness of manner had dis- 
appeared. Their whole appearance was that of self-re- 
specting, alert, intelligent men, and I am sure that there 
was no deception in this appearance. Many a young man 
enters the German army with bad physical and moral 
habits which too often are acquired in early manhood in 
village or city life. 

Even as the two or three years of service in the army 
corrects the physical defects, it also improves the morals. 
Thus this service becomes not only a splendid school in 
preparing men for the defence of their country, but it also 
corrects evil habits earlier acquired, and returns young men 
to civil life strong and sound in body, improved in morals, 
and established in habits. The army must certainly be 
reckoned as one of the agencies in the education of the 
German people, and it is largely through physical train- 
ing that its good results are obtained, whichever side of 
life — civil or military — may be considered. 

If such results can be obtained with young men who 
have nearly reached their majority, how much greater 
results can be secured with the plastic bodies and impres- 
sionable minds of the children of our schools ! We say 
that the end of education is good character, and neglect a 
very natural and important means of securing that end. 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



43 



namely, the proper development of the body. Every day, 
and every hour of the day, the teacher meets opportunities 
to give this training. It is not necessary to go to the 
gymnasium to do this, or to set apart a time for physical 
culture, — though this work should not be omitted, — but 
opportunity will be constantly offered. Require pupils to 
stand firm on both feet when they recite, to carry their 
bodies erect when they march, to abstain from lounging in 
their seats, to rise and to sit gracefully, and to walk with a 
natural and easy gait ; — in a word, they must be taught 
physical self-control, and in learning this they will also 
learn the lesson of moral self-control. 

3. Keep the children employed. — I have shown else- 
where (p. 126) the importance of industry as a virtue and 
as a means of maintaining good order. This question has 
also a moral side. The man who does not know how to 
employ himself is likely to seek the saloon and the place 
of questionable amusement during his leisure hours. Time 
hangs heavily on his hands, and, not knowing what to do 
with himself, he becomes an easy prey to vicious influ- 
ences, and is liable to acquire bad habits. Saloon-keepers 
realize this, and therefore they make their resorts attrac- 
tive with music, games, and bright surroundings. It is not 
merely the craving for drink that draws men to these 
places, it is the need of companionship, the desire to be 
entertained, the filling of the void in their own lives caused 
by their inability to employ their spare time. Men do not 
often leave their work during the day to visit these resorts, 
hence they are not so dangerous during working-hours. 
It is, then, a great moral problem to teach children what 
to do with their unoccupied hours, to teach them how 
to employ themselves. 



144 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



By teaching children the lesson of self- employment, the 
school thus fortifies them against in^-pmperance and its 
attendant evils. I have said elsewhere that children must 
be impressed with the thought that idleness is a vice, 
and therefore, by preventing this vice, morality is in- 
culcated. 

It is the duty of the school to shape the moral as well as 
the intellectual life of the nation. I think it important, 
therefore, to teach honesty towards the public service. 
There is no reason why a man, working for the State or 
the city, should not give as faithful and as honest service 
as if he were working for an individual. It will scarcely 
be claimed that such service is generally rendered. Ob- 
serve the employees of a municipality, from the street- 
sweepers up, and it will be seen that few expect to give the 
same honest service that they give to private employers 
for the same pay. And official heads of departments do 
not expect the same faithfulness from men working under 
them for the city that they demand of those employed by 
them in private enterprise. A false and immoral standard 
has been fostered which shows itself among our citizens 
from the commonest laborer to the highest city official, 
and which has become, in many cities of our land, a prac- 
tical carrying out of the aphorism, " To the victors belong 
the spoils." Hence the disgraceful misrule that so often 
characterizes our municipal governments. 

If this evil is ever corrected, it will be because the peo- 
ple as a whole want it corrected, and the public school 
must form a sentiment among those who are to be the 
men and women of the future that will make such things 
impossible. The children must be taught that when they 
engage their services in any capacity, whether in the 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



145 



kitchen as cook, in the field or the street as laborer, in pri- 
vate or in public capacity, for the individual or for a corpora- 
tion, whether in the most menial employment, or as leader 
of the greatest enterprises, they owe the best they can 
give. And this is a lesson sadly needed in every branch 
of industry and life in our country. 

When this lesson is learned and put into practice, not 
only will municipal government be purified, but also the 
great disturbances between capital and labor will cease. 
The moral worth of employment will not be appreciated 
until this lesson is learned. 

4. Make tise of daily incidents. — Not a day passes in 
which there are not incidents of school life that may be 
employed to teach moral lessons. It may be something 
that has taken place on the playground. Some boys were 
snowballing at recess, and one of them accidentally broke 
a window in a neighboring shop. He went at once to the 
shop and said to the proprietor, " I've broken your win- 
dow, sir, and want to pay for it." " You broke it 1 " said 
the man. " Why didn't you run ? That's the way the 
boys generally do." "That is not the way I do," replied 
the boy. *'I have damaged your window, and it is my 
duty to pay for it." "Well," said the shopkeeper, "this 
is the first time a boy ever came and owned up, and I've a 
notion not to let you pay anything." The boy insisted 
that he ought to pay for the damage resulting from the ac- 
cident. Finally the man said to him : " The boys have 
broken so many window-lights for me that it has cost 
a considerable sum to repair damages. Now I will have 
this one put in with some other broken windows, and let 
you share the expense. I think you will be better satisfied 
with this than if I were to bear all the expense." The 



146 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

boy assented to this, borrowed the money to pay his part, 
and saved from his weekly allowance until his debt was 
discharged. The relation of such an incident as this can- 
not fail to make boys desire to be manly and honest. It 
also teaches them justice and uprightness. The boy who 
had the courage and manliness to accept the full responsi- 
bility of his carelessness, was the better for doing so, and 
his example must have had an excellent effect upon the 
school. The lesson will have a deeper effect if it is drawn 
from an incident that has actually taken place in the 
pupils* own school life and has occurred in the experience 
of one of their own number. 

Then in the schoolroom incidents frequently occur that 
may be used. Two boys were to read essays in a contest 
for a prize. The hour arrived, parents and friends were 
assembled, and one of the boys was called upon to step 
forward to the platform and deliver his production. He 
arose, searched his pockets for his essay ; it was not to be 
found anywhere, and he was obliged to tell his teacher that 
it was lost and that he could not compete for the prize. 
The teacher, angry at such carelessness, turned to the 
other boy and said, " Thomas, the prize is yours ; you have 
merely to go through the form of presenting your essay." 
Thomas arose and walked to the platform, faced the audi- 
ence, and tore his manuscript into bits. " What does this 
mean .? " asked the astonished teacher. " It means that I 
will not profit by the misfortune of my competitor," said 
the boy. The teacher looked at him a moment, and then 
publicly commended his generous act. Such an occasion 
afforded an unusual opportunity for a moral lesson, and ■ it 
needed scarcely a word to bring it home to the pupils. 

Not only incidents that actually occur in the schoolroom. 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



147 



but also those that appear in the class-work, and in the 
lessons themselves, will frequently suggest moral truths 
that can be applied to individual life. Events in the com- 
munity or in the country at large can also be used. It 
must not be thought a loss of time if the teacher occasion- 
ally omits the regular lesson of the program to impress a 
moral truth upon the minds of his pupils. Indeed, there 
are times when to stick to the program and not turn aside 
to utilize just the right moment for moral teaching would 
be almost a crime. There are teachers who are such 
sticklers for order and system, that they will not omit the 
routine spelling-lesson to take time to impress upon the 
children the wickedness of a lie. 

It may be well in this connection to suggest that each 
teacher should have a scrap-book in which incidents and 
stories teaching morals are entered. This material should 
be classified so that it can be drawn upon in the future 
when lessons in morals are desired. Thus, a few pages 
could be devoted to generosity, a few to unselfishness, to 
bravery, to truthfulness, to honesty, etc. This scrap-book 
in time will become very valuable, for it will contain, not 
only the clippings and stories collected from papers, mag- 
azines, and books, but also it will be the preserved record 
of personal incidents in the school and in the experiences 
of life. Thus the teacher will soon acquire a splendid 
fund of material upon which he can draw in carrying out 
a plan of systematic moral instruction. He will utilize 
daily incidents for immediate use, but will also preserve 
them for future classes. 

5. Make the environmeiit of a character to teacJi morals. 
— Beautiful and pleasant surroundings have a decided 
effect upon moral character. Many children come from 



148 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

homes where there is httle that is pleasing, hence the 
greater necessity that the school should be attractive. It 
is made attractive by cleanliness, by the neat and variegated 
dress of the children, by being cheerfully lighted, and by 
suitable pictures on the walls. The dark, uniform garb of 
children in the schools of France is doubtless economical, 
but its sombreness makes it sadly unattractive. It must 
therefore lack the moral effect which the beautiful inspires. 
Where the majority of the children in a class-room are well 
dressed, the slovenly are stimulated to become neat. 
Children are influenced by other children ; and if the senti- 
ment of the class is for pretty dress, there are but few 
children that will not be able to bring their parents to 
make them also look tidy and dress prettily. When a 
sentiment for tidiness has been secured, the pupils will gain 
in self-respect, which is the foundation of good morals. 

Carefully selected pictures, even though but few in num- 
ber, have a decided influence for good. I have a copy of 
Hoffmann's celebrated picture, *' Christ Before the Doc- 
tors." One can never look at this picture without gaining 
nobler ideals, without being made better. No one can esti- 
mate the influence of a fine picture, and therefore the deco- 
ration of schoolrooms with standard works of art is educa- 
tive in the best sense. It will have a salutary effect not 
only upon the chfldren, but also upon future generations. 
The people of Italy and Germany have become musical 
through hearing music for hundreds of years. The teacher 
should not attempt to cover the walls at once with pic- 
tures for the sake of filling the space. It is better to 
secure one or two good pictures each year than to have 
many that are unsuitable in character. By giving enter- 
tainments, by interesting pupils and patrons, possibly by 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



149 



taking collections, funds can be secured for this purpose. 
And the greater the interest that is awakened in the 
school and in the community, the more the pictures will be 
appreciated. While copies of standard works of art are 
desirable, no great expense need be involved. Excellent 
copies of the finest pictures can now be had at small cost. 

The frames selected should be plain, so as not to collect 
dust and so as to be easily cleaned. Historical and classi- 
cal pictures should be explained to the pupils, and very 
valuable lessons can be taught from them. It will be 
found that the presence of pictures will exert a decided 
moral influence upon the children. Works of art refine 
and ennoble, and the schoolroom that is decorated with 
them becomes a beautiful, attractive, and home-like place, 
in which the children take pride, and where they are 
inspired to higher and nobler ideals. 

6. Select moral lessons froTfi history and literature. — I 
once heard the story of Joseph and his brethren told to a 
class of six-year-old boys. It was in a public school in the 
city of Munich. A series of lessons from the life of this 
great leader had previously been given, and this particular 
lesson was that of Joseph revealing himself to his brethren, 
one of the most powerful and pathetic scenes recorded in 
history or literature. It was the moment when Joseph, hav- 
ing sent from the room all but his brethren, said : *' I am 
Joseph, your brother, whom ye sold into Egypt. Now, 
therefore, be not grieved, nor angry with yourselves, that 
ye sold me hither ; for God did send me before you to pre- 
serve life." The teacher briefly reviewed the whole his- 
tory that led up to the event of the day's lesson. The 
embarrassment, the fear, the remorse of the brethren were 
vividly pictured and their sin pointed out. Then the gen- 



I^O A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

erosity, the forgiveness, the fihal affection of Joseph were 
dwelt upon. Joseph's reassurances to his kinsmen that no 
harm should come to them, and his excuses for their con- 
duct as being the means under the providence of God of 
the salvation of the family of Jacob, were discussed. The 
teacher told the story with such simplicity and earnestness 
that all of the boys were deeply impressed. His treatment 
of the subject prepared his pupils for the reception of the 
most effective lessons in morals. It produced an impres- 
sion upon the children such as is rarely witnessed. Is 
there any reason why this same story might not be used 
in the American schools as a means of moral instruction } 
There are other stories from the same source that offer 
most valuable material for the teaching of morals ; indeed, 
there is no book that furnishes so many and such appropri- 
ate stories for moral lessons as the Bible. 

Incidents from the life of Washington, Lincoln, Glad- 
stone, Livingstone, Florence Nightingale, Frances E. Wil- 
lard, and a host of others can be utilized, while history is 
rich in events that can be used in imparting moral lessons. 
Here, again, the value of the scrap-book is evident. Suit- 
able material for use in the school could be collected and 
classified until the teacher has an abundance of material 
from which to select as occasion requires. 

7. Be watchful of the pupils at recess. — When boys and 
girls mingle freely at recess the teacher should be alert to 
prevent any unseemliness. I think it well to let pupils of 
the two sexes play together within certain self-evident lim- 
itations. Boys become gentler and girls less prudish by 
associating with the opposite sex. Whenever possible, the 
teacher should be out of doors with the children, not to 
interfere with or to control their games, but to be one 



SCHOOL MORALS. 



T5I 



among the children, enjoying perfect freedom with them. 
They must not feel that the teacher is on the playground 
to be a spy over their actions, but rather to gain the same 
relaxation from school duties that the children are seeking. 
Nevertheless, the presence of the teacher among the chil- 
dren will prevent wrong-doing, and will raise the moral tone 
of the children. Profanity, vulgarity, fighting, and other 
evils will be checked. Even when not out of doors at 
recess the teacher must be watchful as to what is going 
on. Just how far the teacher may go in his freedom of 
intercourse with his pupils depends upon his own personal- 
ity. A young teacher made a practice of playing with his 
pupils at recess on terms of perfect equality. A member 
of his school board, who had formerly been captain of a 
whaling-vessel, said to him : " Maybe you can make this 
work in your school, but it wouldn't do on shipboard. 
There you would lose all control of your men." " We are 
not on shipboard," replied the young man ; " I think we 
can make it work." It did work in this case. His free- 
dom with his pupils at recess strengthened rather than 
weakened his discipline in the school. In the school he 
was the master ; on the playground he was one of their 
number. Still, his presence exerted a strong moral influ- 
ence at recess. Each teacher, however, must know his 
own strength and his own limitations in this matter. 

The teacher must frequently examine the outhouses and 
see that they are kept in good order. Vulgar inscriptions 
must be removed at once, and perfect cleanliness insisted 
upon. A failure to attend to these things will be produc- 
tive of most evil consequences, and will undo much of the 
good work that is done by other means of moral instruc- 
tion. 



tS2 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



8. Teack the children to be helpful. — A great blessing 
comes to one who is helpful to others. There is no better 
means than this of teaching the lesson of unselfishness. 
Boys are often won to good order and moral practice by 
being set to do something either for the teacher or for 
some one else. I once attended a religious service among 
boys from the slums of a city. To one boy was assigned 
the duty of passing the hymn-books to the people as they 
came in ; another ushered the people to their seats ; a third 
selected and announced the hymns. I noticed that the 
boys who appeared to be the ringleaders of the crowd were 
the ones selected to perform these various duties. Good 
order prevailed ; indeed, these boys acted as though they 
were responsible for good order, and they would brook no 
disturbance. Probably the boys who received the most 
good from the meeting were those who were called upon 
to help. The wise teacher will make use of such means 
to assist in maintaining discipline, and it will be found to 
exercise a decided moral influence. 

One of the blessings of a large family of children is that 
the older ones are called upon to assist in the care of the 
younger. There is an abundance of opportunity to do 
something for some one else that is lacking in the small 
family. The necessity of setting a good example, of as- 
suming responsibility, of taking care of younger brothers 
and sisters, gives the older members of the family, at least, 
practice in right-living and right-doing. It is a good thing 
for a child that he be looked up to as a model of moral 
practice. 

The turning-point in the school life of Tom Brown at 
Rugby, and perhaps of his whole life, came at the begin- 
ning of the second term, when little George Arthur, a 



SCHOOL MORALS. I ^3 

new boy, was placed under his charge. The story of his 
guardianship of the younger boy is the story of Tom's 
moral awakening and development. Probably nothing 
could have been done so effectually to lead Tom Brown 
to take a high moral stand as to give him charge of another 
boy to whom he was to be an example. Children should 
be taught that he who lives to himself alone never receives 
the largest blessings of life ; that he is poor indeed. The 
sublimest lesson of the Divine Master's life was that of 
self-sacrifice. He gave Himself for others ; and only as 
men learn this principle and follow His example, can they 
enter into moral and spiritual life. 

Mrs. Evans summarizes the means of moral training 
most admirably as follows : 

1. Systematic required instruction. 

2. Personal influence of the teacher, with incidental 
teaching. 

3. School discipline in general. 

4. Public sentiment in and out of the school. 

I have intimated that it does not seem best to place the 
teaching of morals on the same basis as arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, reading, etc, ; that it should not have a place in the 
curriculum or in the fixed daily program. Nevertheless, 
the teacher should have a definite plan in his own mind, 
which he should carry out at different times and in a man- 
ner and with material suited to the age of different pupils. 
An excellent scheme has been formulated by Superintend- 
ent J. W. Carr of Anderson, Ind., and is printed in his 
Manual as a part of the course of study. Concerning this 
Mr. Carr writes me : '' If you have time to read this course 
carefully, you will observe that comparatively little time is 
given to formal instruction in this subject. We depend 



154 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



chiefly upon the influences of the teacher using the most 
opportune moment to impress the lessons desired. We 
endeavor to train the children to practise as many of the 
virtues mentioned in the outline as possible. I think the 
work has been reasonably satisfactory." 

Through Superintendent Carr's courtesy, I present this 
valuable course in full in the Appendix. Though it may 
be impracticable to incorporate it in the required work of 
the pupils, it will certainly be a guide for the teacher which 
will enable him to deal with this important subject in a 
systematic and thorough manner. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS.i 

The normal school presents to its students many theories 
which later they will apply in their own schools. In its 
training-school it teaches them how to put theory into 
practice. Doubtless the young teacher is thus fortified 
against many errors, and he consequently will be saved 
from mistakes that otherwise would be made. But the 
training-school with its critic teachers and supervisors, its 
small classes, its abundance of material to work with, its 
ideal conditions as a model school, is a very different place 
from the public school where the young teacher is likely 
to get a position. In the latter case the responsibility, the 
discipline, the instruction, the success of the school rest 
upon the young beginner. This is true in a large sense 
even where there is a principal to give advice and assist- 
ance when needed. The principal must expect a certain 
amount of disciplinary power, independence, and resource- 
fulness from his assistants. 

The teacher is tried by other standards now — not by 
the judgment of the critic teacher whose good opinion is 
so important to him, but by his success in maintaining 
discipline, by his power of interesting his pupils, by his 
ability to bring them forward in their work. No training- 
school experience, however ideal, can be quite the same as 
that of the actual school where the young graduate finds 

1 See also my " Foundations of Education, p. 21. 
155 



1^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

his life-work. This is not to be construed as a criticism of 
the training-school. The experience obtained there, even 
though affected by so many limitations, is a great help in 
the education of the teacher. It will doubtless save him 
from a great many mistakes, and may possibly be the final 
and most valuable feature of the normal school course in 
insuring success. Yet, with all the help that the training- 
school can give, and with all that the normal school can do, 
some of their graduates fail when it comes to the actual 
work of teaching. But not all those who graduate from 
theological seminaries turn out to be successful preachers ; 
all who complete the courses of the medical schools do not 
become skilful physicians. The young teacher must work 
out his own pedagogical salvation in his own schoolroom. 
If he has the help of a thorough professional training, he 
is much more likely to succeed. The lessons learned in 
the professional school will aid him in avoiding many pit- 
falls, and the experiences of others will fortify him against 
many errors. 

I have spoken of normal-trained teachers. It must not 
be forgotten that more than four-fifths of the teachers of 
this country have not had the advantages of the normal 
school, and therefore a large proportion of them need 
advice in the management of their charges. It is for the 
purpose of aiding young teachers of both of these classes, 
— namely, (i) those who have received training in a pro- 
fessional school and yet have had but little practice in 
teaching, and (2) those who have begun to teach without 
professional training, — that this book has been written. 
There are common errors from which these young teachers 
may be spared. Let us turn our attention to some of the 
gravest of these errors. 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



157 



I. Never Use Sarcasm. — There are two reasons why 
s-arcasm should not be used in the school : first, it is bad 
for the child ; and second, it is bad for the teacher. 
Sarcasm is a cruel weapon at best, and young children 
should never be subjected to its blighting, poisonous sting. 
Children are by nature generous, frank, sincere. Let the 
teacher be the last one to make them bitter, suspicious, 
callous. As it is, they will soon enough encounter the 
sneers and suspicions of the evil-minded, and the innuen- 
does of the venomous. Let sweet and generous-spirited 
childhood be encouraged in its open-heart edness, and let 
the school never be guilty of supplanting this quality with 
the rancor and suspicion which the use of sarcasm gene- 
rates. Life will have enough of bitterness without the 
teacher introducing it, and it will come all too soon with- 
out being fostered in the early years of school. 

For his own sake the teacher cannot afford to use sar- 
casm. It reacts upon his own soul and life. Instead of 
writing upon the teacher's brow peace, joy, and good-will 
towards all m.en, it writes hatred, suspicion, envy, vindic- 
tiveness. ''I love to look at that man's face; it is a 
benediction," said a friend to me as the late Dr. E. A. 
Sheldon of the Oswego Normal School approached us. 
Dr. Sheldon could never have made use of sarcasm. It 
would have reacted upon himself, and written malice and 
hatred upon his countenance, instead of benignity and 
kindhness. " Out of the abundance of the heart the 
mouth speaketh." Every teacher has to meet things that 
try his patience ; but, in spite of this, there is no reason 
why the heart may not grow mellow with the years if it 
does not harbor bitterness. The person whose spirit is 
kindly and whose words are free from sarcasm will be 



irg A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

loved and cherished. Such a person will be welcome in 
the society of young and old because of the sunshine that 
he carries with him. Therefore for his own advantage, as 
well as for the sake of the children, let the teacher never 
indulge in the use of sarcasm. 

2. Avoid Threatening and Scolding. — Many of the rea- 
sons for not using sarcasm apply equally well in the matter 
of scolding. It angers and imbitters the pupils, and reacts 
upon the teacher's own disposition. Children should be 
told plainly and yet kindly what is expected of them, and, 
if they deserve it, reprimanded. A reprimand does not 
need to be given in a spiteful or a censorious manner. It 
will carry greater weight if administered in a calm tone of 
voice. The wrong done should be plainly set forth and 
the reason for punishment explained. Reproof is far more 
likely to be effective if the spirit of the teacher is that of 
one who is grieved over the perpetration of a wrong rather 
than of one that is out of patience. If given in a quiet 
manner, and yet with firmness, putting the case fairly, it 
will have a tendency to cause the child to see the serious- 
ness of his error and make him desire to amend. Scold- 
ing leads him to become indifferent, or, perhaps worse, 
excites him to stubbornness. The reflex influence of scold- 
ing upon the one who indulges in it is by no means the 
least serious of the evils occasioned. 

A threat carries with it the promise of a penalty. " If 
you do that again, I shall send you home," threatens the 
teacher. Now, it may be necessary to suspend the child 
from school for repeated offences, warning having been 
given. But the warning need not be a threat. A good 
general always provides for a retreat. There may be cir- 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



^S9 



cumstances connected with a child's act which would miti- 
gate the punishment. Hence the teacher should provide 
a way of retreat without endangering his discipline. For 
that reason he should not definitely fix a punishment for a 
certain offence, should not threaten. Nevertheless, if the 
punishment is deserved, it should be just as sure as if it 
had been threatened. 

There is a great difference between a warning and a 
threat. A warning calls attention to an evil, and points out 
what the ultimate consequences may be if it is persisted 
in ; a threat carries with it a definite purpose to inflict a 
certain punishment for a given offence. The teacher must 
not hesitate to perform his duty, but it is better that he be 
unhampered by previous threats, which narrow his limita- 
tions as to the punishment to be inflicted. It is better to 
look at an offence from the standpoint of the present, with 
all of the circumstances that led to its commission before 
the teacher, rather than from the position of an anticipated 
wrong. 

The viewpoint will be more accurate and more just, 
consequently there is less likelihood of mistakes. Better 
still, there is greater freedom to exercise the quality of 
mercy, and live up to a principle previously enunciated, 
namely, the least punishment that will effect the cure is 
the right punishment. Scolding and threatening should be 
avoided in the school, that justice may be tempered with 
mercy ; furthermore, that the teacher may not acquire an 
acrimonious and bitter spirit. 

3. Keep Your Word. — If pupils are to be taught truth- 
fulness, the teacher must be an example in act and word. 
They must learn that every promise of the teacher will be 



l6o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

kept, and that they can absolutely rely upon what he says. 
" You would do what you promised even if the world came 
to an end," rather petulantly remarked a boy to his teacher 
who rigidly kept his word. But the boy respected this 
teacher because he found that the teacher's word could be 
relied upon. This quality made that teacher a most potent 
moral force in the community, not only among his pupils, 
but also among their parents. Nothing is so destructive to 
discipline as indifference on the part of the teacher to his 
own promises. " You will remain after school to-night," 
says the teacher to a pupil. The teacher forgets his com- 
mand, and the pupil slips away unnoticed. An implied 
promise is contained in the command, and to ignore or 
forget it is to invite a repetition of the act, and bring the 
disciplinary requirements of the school into disrepute. If 
the teacher cannot rely upon his memory, he should make 
a note of his promises so that they will not be forgotten. 

In all of his financial dealings the teacher should be the 
soul of honor. He knows exactly what his income is, and 
therefore he is aware of the amount he may spend. He also 
knows when he can pay, and his promises to pay must be 
promptly met. This ought to be said of every person, but 
I am addressing teachers whose example as well as teaching 
should be righteous and honest. The eyes of the whole 
community are upon him, and therefore his financial integ- 
rity should be beyond question. This view of a teacher's 
obligations is true, however small his salary may be. He 
must live within his means, and thus bring no reproach 
upon his profession. 

4. Do Not be Hasty in Condemning a Child. — In most 
cases where a serious evil has been committed, it is better 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. l6l 

to defer action for a day or two. This will prevent a 
decision being made during the heat of anger, and it will also 
remove the charge of anger when none exists. Calmer 
judgment will control, and the punishment will be more 
likely to be just, and possibly less severe. This delay 
affords time to inquire into home conditions, and very often 
such investigation will bring to light circumstances that 
mitigate and perhaps entirely excuse the offence. 

A boy was frequently late at school. After many 
remonstrances on the part of his teacher, and the fault not 
being corrected, he was sent to the principal. The boy sat 
for some time in the office, until finally the principal 
turned to him and said in a most kindly manner, " Thomas, 
tell me why you are so often late at school." " I can't help 
it, " said the boy. " Does your mother know of your being 
so often tardy ? " was next asked. " My mother is dead," 
replied the boy, bursting into tears. The principal's man- 
ner won the confidence of the lad and he told his whole 
story. It was as follows : His father was a laboring man, 
who was obliged to have his breakfast before six o'clock in 
order that he might go to his day's work. The boy had a 
little sister four or five years old, and a grandmother who 
was too feeble to assist in the household duties, and often 
too ill to leave her bed. This boy arose very early, 
assisted in getting breakfast, dressed his sister, cared for 
his grandmother, and put the house in order after his 
father had gone. Besides this, he sold papers every morn- 
ing, contributing several dollars a week to the family funds. 
This accounted for his frequent tardiness. Now, a hasty 
judgment might have brought punishment upon a child 
who was doing noble, self-sacrificing work, and who 
deserved credit for attempting to go to school at all. 



1 62 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Such deliberate inquiry will often modify the punishment 
of a child, and, as our illustration shows, sometimes obviate 
it altogether. It may also bring the home into closer 
touch with the purpose and spirit of the school. 

5. Use Judgment in Giving and Withholding Assistance. 

— A father, not long ago, said to me : " There is some- 
thing radically wrong with our schools. Why, I have to 
spend one or two hours every evening in showing my chil- 
dren how to do their school-work. I am made a slave 
because teachers do not attend to their duty. What right 
have they to send children home knowing absolutely noth- 
ing as to the way to prepare their lessons, thus throwing 
the responsibility of teaching them upon the parents ? I 
am tired of the whole scheme." 

Not many days after that another father said to me : 
" My boys have nothing to do at home. They don't study, 
and they tell me that there is no need of their studying at 
home, for the teacher does all the work for them in school. 
I had to study when I went to school, and I am suspicious 
of a school that does not make the pupils study. There is 
something wrong about this." 

Here we have two entirely divergent views by intelligent 
men in the same city, though their children did not attend 
the same school. Doubtless both exaggerated somewhat 
in their statements of the situation as they found it, but 
each was intelligently interested in the progress of his 
children. It seems to me that in these criticisms are indi- 
cated two great dangers in modern methods of instruction, 

— that of withholding all assistance, and that of helping too 
much. Now, it is not likely that any teacher would know- 
ingly set tasks that require daily help from outside, nor is 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1 63 

it likely that any teacher intends to do so much of the 
child's work that little is left for him to accomplish. But 
the danger is there, and every teacher should be cautioned 
as to the manner of meeting it. These are not by any 
means isolated cases of complaint. There are abundant 
evidences that both of these extremes are frequently met. 
Where a parent encounters either of these faults, he has 
just cause for complaint. In the first case, it is the busi- 
ness of the teacher to instruct, and no parent can be 
expected to spend his evenings over his children's school- 
tasks. The teacher who habitually sends his pupils home 
for help is shirking his duty. In the second case, if the 
teacher does the work for the child, as he is tempted to 
do, being able to perform it quicker and more easily, he is 
robbing the child of the opportunity and the pleasure of 
learning, for without self-activity there is no education. 

The key to the whole situation lies in the proper giving 
and withholding of assistance. There is no higher test of 
the skill and judgment of a teacher than this. Herbart 
lays stress upon educative instruction {Erziehende-Unter- 
richf). The child learns through the instruction given by 
the teacher, the method most commonly followed by Ger- 
man teachers to the present time. Froebel, on the other 
hand, gives emphasis to the self-activity of the child in his 
method of teaching. The true method doubtless employs 
both of these ideas — instruction, which leads and directs 
the child so that he will be stimulated and interested, and 
so that he will not take false steps ; and self-activity, which 
also needs directing. The teacher must give such instruc- 
tion concerning the lesson as will direct the pupils how 
and what to do, whether in seat-work or home-work, and 
then the pupils themselves must be required to perform 



164 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

the work. Parents should not be called upon to aid or 
to instruct their children ; they should, however, see to it 
that certain hours are set apart for home study, and require 
their children faithfully to employ this time. More than 
this cannot be asked, and more than this the teacher should 
not expect. If it is found that the work assigned is too 
difficult for the children to do, let them take it back to the 
school for further assistance. 

On the other hand, the teacher must not do any work 
for the pupils that they can perform with a reasonable 
amount of effort. The tendency of modern schools and 
modern methods is to offer too much help to the pupil, so 
that he fails to gain the persistence and diligence which 
are necessary in surmounting obstacles. Life is made up 
of struggle, and the child must not be freed from meeting 
a reasonable amount of trial in his school-work. The pupil 
who easily succumbs, whenever he meets a serious diffi- 
culty in his lessons, is not likely to become a man who, 
when overtaken by adversity, arises from the ruins and 
courageously begins again. This quality of manhood is 
not to be gained by effeminate methods. It is gained only 
through persistence, and pupils must be taught to over- 
come difficulties through their own efforts. Then, too, the 
joy, the triumph of victory will be theirs. 

But there often comes a time when help should be given 
to the child, when to continue longer upon a task would 
be unprofitable. Just when that point is reached, it is 
difficult to determine. The temperament of the child 
must be taken into account. A naturally persistent and 
ambitious child may spend more time upon a task than is 
profitable ; may, as it were, waste time. One that is lazy 
or too easily discouraged must be held to his task. In 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1 65 

general, we may say, that the time for assistance has ar- 
rived when the point of discouragement is reached. What 
the child himself can accomphsh with reasonable effort he 
must be allowed to do if ambitious, and required to com- 
plete if lazy. When the teacher has the wisdom and tact to 
bring about these conditions, the two forms of complaint we 
have been discussing will no longer have any justification. 

6. Have Patience with the Dull Child. — Most children 
at some time in life pass through a period in which both 
the physical and the intellectual powers are below the 
normal. There are physiological causes for this which the 
study of childhood in recent years has revealed and par- 
tially explained. Every teacher has had pupils who have 
been bright and efficient in their school-work, but who 
came to a time when it was almost impossible for them to 
learn. Such pupils are likely to be denominated dull, 
especially if through changes of teachers or through pro- 
motion the teacher does not have them long enough to be- 
come acquainted with their condition. The management 
of such cases requires great patience and skill on the part 
of the teacher until the child regains his health and vigor 
and his apparent dulness passes away. 

Even if the child is naturally dull he is deserving of the 
best of attention. To teach the bright, interesting pupil 
is very easy ; but to arouse and interest those that are 
dull, tests the teacher's power. The latter requires skill, 
patience, tact, good judgment, zeal, versatility. The re- 
sults, however, often more than compensate for the extra 
trouble. The dull child learns persistence, perseverance, 
value of effort, through the hard work that he must do to 
gain the victory. One may easily write his name on the 



1 66 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

sand at the seashore ; but the rising tide, the breath of 
wind, or the passing foot-tread, just as easily obliterates it. 
To write one's name on marble or granite requires great 
patience, but how enduring is the inscription ! Just so 
the mind that easily takes an impression is apt easily to 
lose it ; and the mind that receives the impression only by 
hard and persistent effort, retains it. 

Every old teacher can testify that some of his most 
promising pupils have failed in life, while some of his dull 
ones have attained great success. The former depended 
upon their brilliancy, and expected to win without a strug- 
gle ; the latter depended upon hard work through which 
they compelled success. 

Peter Cooper was called a dunce at school. Sir Isaac 
Newton and James Watt were regarded as blockheads, 
and Sir Walter Scott was considered half-witted. General 
Grant exhibited no brilliant qualities either as a child or as 
a cadet at West Point, and yet it was his determination to 
"fight it out on this line if it takes all summer" that 
crushed the Rebellion. 

Then, too, the teacher sometimes meets pupils who, 
although of excellent general ability, are sadly lacking in 
ability to acquire some particular subject. Emerson could 
not learn mathematics. Colonel Parker said that so far as 
music is concerned he was " an idiot." " My daughter was 
obliged to leave school because her principal insisted upon 
her studying mathematics," said a bank president. He 
added, " She simply could not learn mathematics, and she 
inherits this defect from me." When a defect is apparent, 
school life should not be made a burden to a child by per- 
sisting in his taking the work which he does not possess 
the power to grasp. 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1 67 

My plea here is not for the imbecile — he belongs in the 
school for the feeble-minded — but for the slow, the 
plodding, the dull child, who deserves, and so often proves 
himself worthy of, an opportunity. Education is a birth- 
right of every person, and it must not be denied to the 
dullard any more than to the child of brilliant parts. Mar- 
den says : " The world has been very kind to many who 
were once known as dunces or blockheads after they have 
become very successful ; but it was very cross to them 
while they were struggling through discouragement and 
misinterpretation. Such lives do not show, however, that 
a numskull is sure to climb to the top. Because the last 
boy in his class became the great Henry Ward Beech er, 
there is no reason to conclude that the last boy in the 
next class, or the next, must become anything great at all. 
There must be some life in the boy, or he will not rise 
under any circumstances until the day appointed for the 
resurrection of the dead. If he starts out in life as a 
failure, he will end as one, unless he gets thoroughly waked 
up in some way. Give every boy and every girl a fair 
chance and reasonable encouragement, and do not condemn 
them because of even a large degree of downright stupid- 
ity ; for many so-called good-for-nothing boys, blockheads, 
numskulls, dullards, or dunces, were only boys out of their 
places, round boys forced into square holes." 

7. Have Eyes that Sometimes See Not. — Children, like 
the young of all animal life, are full of play. Much of the 
mischief of children is entirely innocent, and it should, 
therefore, often be overlooked in school life. The teacher 
has only to guard against the " young steeds " getting the 
bit between the teeth and running av/ay with him. Each 



1 68 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

teacher must be a law unto himself, as to the liberties he 
may allow his pupils. An occasional tightening of the 
reins will suffice to show who is in command. Teachers 
who see evil in every bit of fun, and who try to crush the 
overflowing spirits of the children, are bound to have 
trouble in discipline. They soon acquire the habit of nag- 
ging, and their pupils learn how to annoy them. A great 
deal of innocent mischief must not be seen by the teacher. 
A young teacher who had charge of a corridor in a 
boarding-school frequently sent girls to the principal for 
reprimand. The offences in the main were trivial. Now, 
when a teacher sends pupils too frequently to a superior 
officer for punishment, the latter will inevitably reach the 
conclusion that there is something wrong with the teacher, 
for discipline is a part of the duty of every teacher, which 
she cannot shirk. After repeated cases had been referred 
to him, the principal began to keep a record of the stu- 
dents sent to him by this teacher and of the offences with 
which they were charged. Having accumulated a long 
list in a few days, he invited the teacher to his office and 
showed it to her. She was quite astonished at the number 
and the trivial nature of the offences when they had been 
shown to her on paper. Then the principal told her that 
she was seeing too much, that a great deal that she had 
referred to him ought not to have been noticed, and that 
she must learn not to see. The young lady left the office 
feeling that her principal was not supporting her, that she 
was misunderstood, and that evil would surely follow if she 
carried out his advice. But after some reflection, she 
concluded to try his remedy. It took some time for her 
to get over her nervous alertness, and to learn to discrim- 
inate between what was really bad and what was innocent 



CAUTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1 69 

and harmless. But she succeeded so far as to be able to 
report after a few weeks that she had conquered herself, 
and, moreover, that there was a real and decided improve- 
ment in the order of her hall. She had simply overcome 
the habit of being "fussy," and had learned not to see too 
much. 

Let there be good-fellowship between teacher and 
pupils, and let the teacher be generous in excusing mis- 
chief that is not vicious. By this means, discipline will be 
improved, evil will not increase, and the work of governing 
will be reduced to a minimum. 

8. Remember that You are Dealing with Immortal 

Beings. — The greatest duty committed to man is that of 
teaching young children. The reason for this is that the 
child is not to be trained as a horse or a dog may be 
trained, but possessing a mind, an immortal spirit, he is to 
be educated. The teacher will see in the child great 
possibilities, and he must take into account not only a hfe 
of usefulness for perhaps threescore years and ten, but 
also consider the child's immortal well-being. This does 
not mean that religious doctrines and creeds are to be 
taught in the public schools, but it does mean, in the broad- 
est sense, that religion is to be taught. Most of all, it will 
be imparted by the teacher's own life, by his reverent atti- 
tude towards sacred things, by his belief in the destiny and 
inestimable worth of the human soul, and by his apprecia- 
tion of the highest aim of education. Rosenkranz teaches 
that education is incomplete if the religious side of culture 
is omitted, and every educational thinker must agree with 
that teaching. 

Although the doctrinal side of religion may not be taught 



lyo A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in the American school that is supported by public taxation, 
it is not claimed that doctrines are not essential. The 
peculiar tenets of each sect, where there is no state religion, 
must be taught in the home and in the church, and not in 
the public school. These outside agencies may thus com- 
plete the work of religious training. 

But the public school may implant in the children a 
noble character, inspire them with a reverence for holy 
things, teach them a consciousness of dependence upon an 
All-wise Being, and a belief in their final destiny. This 
is the duty of the school, and I believe that parents of all 
shades of belief will welcome such teaching. I believe, 
further, that the time is nearly at hand when they will 
demand it of the schools. It doubtless can be done with- 
out arousing the spirit of sectarianism, or awakening the 
fear that cherished beliefs will be interfered with. Whether 
or not such teaching may be allowed, the teacher will not 
forget that the child committed to his care is an immortal 
being, and by a silent, reverent, and consistent life, he will 
lead his pupils towards the truth. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL-WORK. 

The spirit of rivalry shows itself not only in the school, 
but also in other phases of life. On the playground, in 
mercantile and social relations, in the home, even among 
the lower animals, ambition is awakened by external incen- 
tives. The race-horse exerts himself to the greatest only 
when he has a rival or a running-mate. The athlete 
reaches his highest endeavor when pushed to the utmost 
by a worthy opponent. In the United States Treasury 
Department at Washington a most skilled and rapid work- 
man is employed by the piece in certain work, while the 
others in the same department are employed on salary by 
the day. The first-named workman sets the pace for the 
others, who are led to more rapid work in order not to fall 
too far behind their leader. They are stimulated to greater 
effort by his example. 

This natural tendency to increased energy when spurred 
by other persons may be employed to arouse children to 
better school-work and to renewed efforts in acquiring cor- 
rect habits of self-discipline. How to use this without 
awakening envy, and how to lead pupils to their best en- 
deavor, is an important problem. The incentives chosen 
should be of a nature to awaken generous rivalry without 
injuring other pupils. The competition in athletic sports 
which goes so far as to injure a formidable opponent in 

171 



iy2 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

order to "put him out of the game," cannot be defended 
upon any ethical principle. It should be condemned not 
only by the authorities, but also by the student-body and 
the contestants themselves. That one should endeavor to 
excel others is perfectly fair and legitimate ; but to defeat 
them by unfair means, by resort to brutahty, by seeking to 
injure or to destroy, must be discountenanced as unsports- 
manlike and unrighteous. This wrong spirit can show 
itself as truly in the schoolroom in connection with studies 
as upon the playground or the athletic field. 

I propose to discuss the principal incentives employed 
in the school, and to show how they may be properly and 
legitimately used. 

I. Emulation. — No educators have used emulation as a 
school incentive to the extent that it was employed by the 
Jesuits. They reduced emulation to a system, setting one 
pupil to watch another, one class to compete with another, 
one school to rival another school. It is said that the 
pupil was rewarded " not only for his own good conduct, 
but for the bad conduct of his comrades if he informed 
against them." This course of action would certainly have 
a tendency to debase the informer, and must have culti- 
vated ungenerous and selfish motives in him, while possi- 
bly it wrought injustice to the person informed against. 
Meanness, deception, and intrigue would be the natural 
outcome, because of the reward offered for the betrayal of 
a comrade. Therefore emulation thus practised cannot be 
too strongly condemned. 

And yet, as emulation is a natural instinct, it can be 
used in the school without evil effects. The principle gov- 
erning its use should be excellmg without degrading others. 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL-WORK. 



173 



Especially may it be employed with young children. A 
child reads a paragraph. " Who will try to read this bet- 
ter ? " asks the teacher, and many hands will be raised in 
generous and ambitious rivalry. Children are invited to 
do their best in a written exercise, and the teacher selects 
the best and commends it. Rapid and neat work in num- 
ber is called for, and the successful pupil is praised. 
Neatness in dress, in the care of school-books, and of the 
pupils' desks, is suggested, and the child most worthy re- 
ceives commendation. A great many opportunities to in- 
cite proper emulation will be found. Effort as well as 
success must be taken into account. The success of one 
pupil is not dependent upon the degradation of another. 
Such rivalry is healthful, generous, and inspiring. Emula- 
tion can be very properly used in the school to stimulate 
pupils to greater exertion and to arouse their ambition, and 
it need not provoke their envy. 

2. Class Rank. — Most colleges in former years laid 
stress upon class rank. Inasmuch as it has often occurred 
that men of high class rank have failed to rank high in 
life, and men low on the list of the graduating class have 
become leaders among men, the wisdom of college ranking 
has come to be seriously questioned. Perhaps another 
reason for discontinuing the custom is that the much 
larger number graduated from our colleges makes ranking 
according to number impracticable. The evils of the sys- 
tem were obvious. Some men would sacrifice every inter- 
est for the sake of a high rank, while others have been 
known to wreck their health in their superhuman efforts 
to take the highest rank in their class. Now, no one 
would discourage a student from seeking a high standing 



iy4 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in his classes ; but to bend every energy to that end with- 
out reference to the perfect assimilation of material, and 
to the detriment of health, is a false incentive. A wiser 
plan has generally been adopted, in which a few " honor 
men " are selected to designate superior work and ability. 

With children even less stress should be laid upon class 
ranking. For this reason the use of letters instead of 
numbers has been adopted. This may be illustrated as 
follows : For excellent, E ; for good, G ; for fair, F ; and 
for poor, or not passed, P. This scheme does not admit 
of close comparison on the part of the children, and is 
therefore to be commended. Thus, if one child gets 94 
and another 96 in some subject, there is opportunity for 
them to compare notes, and dissatisfaction may be created. 
By the use of letters both would get E, and there would 
be no cause for complaint, while the facts are sufficiently 
indicated for all grading purposes.] 

A form of class ranking may serve as a temporary diver- 
sion ; for example, the practice of 'Agoing up" in oral 
spelling. It should be employed only occasionally, and it 
may be used as a kind of game ; at the same time it excites 
interest in oral spelling. 

3. Prizes. — The danger of giving prizes in ordinary 
school-work lies in the fact that they reward success rather 
than effort ; that they arouse jealousy, and that they are 
likely to subject the teacher to the charge of unfairness. Be- 
sides this, it is difficult to give prizes on a perfectly fair basis. 
One child receives help at home, is unhampered by outside 
duties, has more books and material to work with, is able 
to attend school more regularly than another whose efforts 
are, perhaps, more worthy. Then, too, the contestants 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL^WORK. 



175 



usually narrow down to a small number of pupils, perhaps 
two or three, who need the incentive least of all. There- 
fore, the offering of the prize accomplishes no good end. 
If, early in the contest, all but a few drop out, the other 
pupils becoming mere partisans of their particular friends, 
evil, and not good, is the inevitable result. 

I remember, when a boy, entering a contest for a prize, 
and I can never dismiss the idea that my teacher treated 
me unfairly. I did not win the prize ! The contest was 
in spelling, and it lasted the whole term. The pupils stood 
up in a long line, each spelling orally in turn. The teacher 
let a misspelled word pass without comment, and any 
pupil who noticed the error could take up the word, spell 
it correctly, and go above the one who had missed it. It 
was the duty of the pupil who stood at the head of the 
class to correct all misspelled words that had not been cor- 
rected down the line, when it came his turn. If he 
corrected ten words and failed to remember a single one, 
any one below him might spell it and displace him. Thus 
it will be seen that it was a memory test as well as an 
exercise in spelHng. At the close of the lesson, the pupil 
remaining at the head of the class scored a point, and took 
his place at the foot, to begin again the next day to work 
his way up. The contestants were soon reduced in number 
to two pupils, of whom I was one. None of the others had 
the slightest interest in the contest, except as they were 
partisans of the two leaders. The suspicion became gen- 
eral that the teacher favored my opponent. It was noticed 
that as soon as she reached the head, the lesson was 
discontinued ; whereas, so long as I remained there, he 
would continue to pronounce words until the inevitable 
came, and I was displaced. It is quite likely that this 



1^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

suspicion was unjust, and that the teacher meant to give 
us an equal chance. But excitement ran high, and the 
contest afforded an opportunity to form this judgment. It 
worked evil to both pupils and teacher, whether justly or 
unjustly, and occasioned a loss of confidence. Such a con- 
test should never be entered upon. It is debasing to 
school morals ; it arouses animosities, and does not secure 
better work among the pupils as a whole. 

If prizes are given at all, they should be for things 
upon which all can enter with equal chance, such as deport- 
ment, regularity, punctuality, neatness, etc, A teacher 
offered prizes to her pupils for keeping their boots blacked, 
their hands and nails clean, and for general neatness of 
person. It had a good effect, for all could enter the 
contest. 

In general, it is better that prizes should be offered by 
outsiders, and that the judges also should be persons not 
connected with the school. Many of the evils enumerated 
will be avoided thereby. This is usually the plan pursued 
in colleges, where prizes in the form of scholarships, fellow- 
ships, money, etc., are given. The charge of favoritism 
is thus eliminated, and great good to worthy students may 
be done. 

It would be unwise to give a sweeping condemnation of 
the idea of offering prizes. Scholarship may be promoted, 
science fostered, invention stimulated, and investigation in 
new fields of learning and enterprise furthered. The Ox- 
ford scholarships founded by the late Cecil Rhodes, where- 
by students from many lands will be enabled to pursue 
advanced studies in the great English university ; scholar- 
ships and fellowships established in all of our colleges and 
universities ; prizes offered by individuals and by scientific 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL-WORK. 



177 



societies to promote research, — all these must exert a 
wonderful influence for good. The competitors, however, 
are mature persons. The conditions under which these 
prizes are offered are such as to prevent their being un- 
worthily or unjustly bestowed. Hence, the evils of the 
ordinary school prize are guarded against. 

We may say, then, in conclusion, that the prize is an 
unworthy means of stimulating children, except where all 
may enter the contest with equal expectation of success. 
The teacher cannot rely upon prize-giving as a wholesome 
incentive for school-work. 

4. Marking. — Many teachers follow the practice of 
marking each pupil when he has completed a recitation. 
The pupil soon regards the mark as the end for which he 
recites. It is well known that pupils become acute in 
watching the motion of the teacher's pencil so that they 
are able to detect the ten, the six, or the zero which they 
may get. The gravest evil of this system, consequently, 
is that it incites the pupil to work for the mark only. 

There are teachers who seem to rejoice in catching a 
child in error, and they put down a zero with evident 
satisfaction. It does not take children long to discern 
this spirit. It is as though the purpose of the recitation 
is to see how many pupils can be made to fail, rather than 
to arouse their highest effort. I shall show later (p. 179) 
that the purpose of the recitation centres around the idea 
of finding out what the pupils know instead of what they 
do not know. 

A system of accurate marking makes the teacher a slave 
to the mechanical side of his work, destroys direct interest 
in the lesson, and stands between him and his class con- 



178 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



tinually in the thought of both. Should it arouse the class 
to increased effort, which may be doubted, its baneful influ- 
ence more than counterbalances the good effects because of 
the end in view. Nor does the evil cease with the lesson. 
The teacher unnecessarily adds to his own burdens in the 
monthly averages that must be made out. For a mechani- 
cal system of marking carries with it the footing-up of rows 
of figures and the reckoning of averages in order to find out 
exactly how each pupil stands in each subject. It is the 
most profitless and tiresome work that a teacher can under- 
take ; and, withal, it is thoroughly useless if not vicious. 
There is enough drudgery which cannot be escaped with- 
out the teacher taking upon himself any that can be dis- 
pensed with. 

Purpose of marking. — The purpose of marking is merely 
to assist the teacher's memory when he comes to the con- 
sideration of the periodical report or of promotion. Possi- 
bly the presence of marks in the record-book may satisfy 
parents who question the judgment of the teacher in regard 
to the report sent home. Where the class is large, a few 
marks may be necessary to indicate the weakness of pupils 
who are not doing well. If the record-book shows many 
entries against a name, errors only being marked, it will 
soon attract attention, and lead to inquiry as to the cause 
of bad work. Surely the purpose of marking is not to keep 
an accurate debit and credit account with every pupil. No 
child should be subjected to such a system. 

Method suggested. — A system of marking that absorbs 
the chief attention of both pupils and teacher, that makes 
the recording of daily work an end and not a means, is 
to be condemned. But marking can be employed as an 
incentive for school-work without inviting the evils de- 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOI^WORK. 



179 



scribed. Let me suggest a plan by which it may be so 
employed. 

1. Mark only unsatisfactory work. — It will be noticed 
that I do not say perfect work. No school-work is abso- 
lutely perfect, and yet most of it should be satisfactory ; if 
not, either the subject-matter has been too difficult, or the 
explanation of it has been inadequate. In either case the 
fault is the teacher's and not the pupils'. When only un- 
satisfactory work is marked, there will be but little mark- 
ing necessary, hence the page will remain comparatively 
clean. Thus it follows that the drudgery of making out 
monthly reports will be lessened. Instead of long lines of 
figures to add, there are but a few figures scattered over 
the page, which the teacher has entered to aid his memory 
when he comes to determine what the average should be. 
It is to be remembered that only unsatisfactory work is 
recorded. If the record is expressed in letters, E, G, F, 
and P, as already suggested, the purpose will be adequately 
met, and sufficient data will be furnished for indicating each 
pupil's monthly or term standing. Marking only unsatis- 
factory lessons greatly simplifies the system, saves time, 
keeps the matter of records in the background, and yet 
furnishes all needed information. 

2. Mark only at the e7id of the recitatio7i. — When a 
pupil is called upon and fails to do well, make a note and 
-go on with other pupils. Let every pupil understand that 
marks are given only at the close of the recitation, and 
that there is opportunity to redeem error so long as 
the recitation lasts. If a child succeeds in proving that he 
has been faithful in preparation and that he understands 
the lesson as a whole, no entry of a single mistake need 
be made. Thus, the whole class will be kept alert until 



l8o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

the close of the recitation ; whereas, under a system of 
close marking, when a pupil gets a ten, he is satisfied, and 
does not need to exert himself any further, and if he gets a 
zero he is likely to be angry and refuse to try again. Each 
pupil as soon as he has recited might almost as well be ex- 
cused from the class, for the end sought, the mark, has 
been attained. 

But if no record is made until the close of the lesson, 
interest will be maintained, and undue attention to marks 
will be avoided. As there is so little marking, it may in 
some cases be done while the classes are changing. 

3. Do not announce the mark given. — It is not the 
business of the children to know what is entered in the 
teacher's record. As we have said, marks are merely pri- 
vate signs to assist the teacher's memory when the monthly 
averages are recorded. Even if figures are employed, 
these figures are not to have strict mathematical signifi- 
cance. The characters are simply a guide to the teacher in 
arriving at a sufficiently accurate judgment. Hence there 
is no reason for giving the pupil his daily mark, for it 
would have no correct meaning to him. Children will 
soon cease to ask, and will give attention to the work in 
hand, which is the mastery of the subject without reference 
to any record made. 

We reiterate that this plan of marking will be easy, will 
be sufficient for all purposes, will serve as a means rather 
than an end, and will allow the teacher to give his whole 
thought to the recitation. The legitimate purpose of the 
school, that of instructing the pupils, will thus be furthered. 

5. The Highest Incentive. — The highest incentive for 
endeavor in the school must be found in the lessons them- 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL-WORK. l8l 

selves. When the pupils study for the love of learning, 
when they seek the mastery over the subjects of their course 
because they want to know them, when they find interest 
in their school duties, then they have reached the highest 
incentive of school activity. Emulation, class rank, prizes, 
marking, may be employed as temporary expedients, but 
the teacher should have the end in view from the outset, 
and should never be satisfied until that end is reached. A 
personal experience taught me this important lesson. I 
relate it in the hope that the truth may come home to my 
readers with added force. 

It was the last night of a seven days' trip through the 
Thuringian Forest in Germany.^ Twenty-five teachers 
belonging to Stoy's Pedagogical Seminary, Jena, and 
about fifty boys from twelve to fourteen years of age, con- 
stituted our party. The boys were soundly sleeping upon 
the straw in the hotel ballroom, and the teachers were 
assembled for their last conference. The week's experi- 
ences had been reviewed, its lessons summarized, and 
a tentative scheme of the uses to be made of the material 
collected. The week had been rich in historic, geo- 
graphic, and scientific interest. Scenes of some of the 
world's most mighty events, — the principal battle-grounds 
of the Thirty Years' War ; the Wartburg, where Luther 
translated the Holy Scriptures ; many of the places where 
he had lived, taught, and preached, and where the 
Reformation first took root ; the spot where St. Boniface 
founded the first monastery and introduced Christianity 
into Germany ; Salzungen, where Charlemagne made 
the natural salt springs of commercial value, — these and 

1 For a full account of this trip, see my " Foundations of Education," 
Chapter XV. 



1 82 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

many other historic places had been visited during those 
seven memorable days. The rivers, mountains, villages, 
and cities of this most beautiful section of the Fatherland 
had been studied, thus obtaining practical lessons in 
geography. Manufactories had been inspected, and many 
important lessons concerning the economic conditions of 
the boys' native land derived. Plant and animal life had 
been carefully noted, the formation of rocks and the 
character of the soil examined, preparatory to most valu- 
able lessons in nature study and science. 

Besides this, the daily contact of teachers and pupils 
had awakened sympathies and strengthened bonds des- 
tined to form the groundwork for future moral and 
spiritual culture. This rich material had been noted in 
the boys' diaries under the supervision of the teachers, 
to be utilized in the school-work of the coming year. 
The result of this study was to appear in a final and 
extended description which each boy was to make. It is 
evident that such a trip would furnish an abundance of 
valuable and interesting material which could scarcely be 
exhausted during the whole succeeding year. 

It occurred to me that I could encourage the boys in 
this work by offering a special incentive, a prize. Ac- 
cordingly I proposed to give ten marks, to be distributed 
in three prizes of five, three, and two marks, to the three 
pupils producing the best descriptions respectively. My 
offer was received by the teachers with applause, but I 
thought with some reserve. The following morning I 
saw the principal, and asked him to tell me frankly what 
he thought of my offer. His reply taught me the lesson 
that I am trying to inculcate, which may justify this 
lengthy description. He disclosed to me politely the 



INCENTIVES TO SCHOOL-WORK. 183 

attitude towards my proposition that he felt compelled to 
take. He said : " We appreciate most fully your kindly 
intention, but we cannot accept your offer. It would be 
contrary to all of our pedagogical teachings. These boys 
are all poor, and the prizes you offer would be a strong 
inducement to them, and one which would be constantly 
before them throughout the year. An unwholesome and 
unnatural stimulus would be furnished. I cannot consent 
to it. My boys must do the work that we are going 
to ask of them, because they love it and are interested in 
it, and not because of any outside incentive. It is our 
duty as teachers to awaken in them a love for their school- 
work, and if we fail to do this we are not good teachers. 
No, my dear sir, we cannot accept your offer, nor can we 
allow our boys to know that you have made it." I never 
forgot the lesson. It was one of the most valuable educa- 
tional theories ever propounded to me, and it was perfectly 
sound. 

The highest incentive must be found in the subject- 
matter itself. The teacher, by the method used, by his 
love for the work, and his interest in it, by zeal and 
earnestness and knowledge, must arouse and inspire his 
pupils also to love it. There is no subject in the curricu- 
lum with which this is not ultimately possible. Although 
the other incentives, such as prizes, class rank, etc, may 
sometimes be employed as temporary expedients, the 
teacher should aim to bring his pupils to the high plane 
insisted upon by my German friend, namely, that of study 
for the love of the subject studied. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PROMOTION. 

Ever since La Salle, more than two hundred years ago, 
originated the ** Simultaneous Method " of instruction 
whereby pupils of about the same advancement are taught 
together in classes instead of individually, the problem of 
promotion has agitated the educational world. Some have 
even gone so far as to condemn the classification of pupils 
and to advocate the return to ''individuahsm," pure and 
simple. Doubtless the economy of instructing many pupils 
at the same time, and the simpUcity of a scheme which 
allows a number of children to be placed together for a 
certain period and for the same work, are attractive to 
schoolmen. The plan admits of a whole class being pro- 
moted in a body; it is, however, a plan that has been 
found, if too rigidly administered, to work injustice to some 
of the pupils. Thus evils have grown up under the sys- 
tem. The individual needs are often lost sight of ; each 
class is expected to perform the same work in the same 
time ; a certain number of pages of the text-book are speci- 
fied in the curriculum to be covered in a given number of 
weeks, regardless of the ability of the class ; the work 
becomes mechanical and automatic in its operation ; and 
the efficiency of the teachers is estimated by their success 
in grinding out the required specifications. Full-year 
courses with a fixed amount of work, followed by promotion 
at the end of the year, only make promotion a very serious 

184 



PROMOTION. 185 

matter. And when a pupil who falls but a fraction of one 
per cent below the fixed passing-mark is required again to 
go over the whole year's work, the matter becomes of 
vital importance to both pupil and parent. This system 
has a tendency to drive pupils from the school, because 
they cannot bear the thought of spending another year 
upon subjects that they have nearly mastered, or in which 
they have failed through a possible accident in an exam- 
ination. Many teachers go to this extreme, and pupils and 
schools suffer thereby. I have known pupils to be sent 
back for another year because their average was only 74.9, 
while the required promotion-mark was 75. 

But there has been a decided reaction against these 
rigid methods in recent years, and consequently the evils 
mentioned have largely disappeared. Dr.. Harris, in speak- 
ing upon this point, says : *' This evil has been remedied 
in nearly one-half of the cities by promoting pupils when- 
ever they have completed the work of a grade. The con- 
stant tendency of classification to become imperfect by 
reason of difference in rates of advancement of the several 
pupils, owing to disparity of age, degree of maturity, tem- 
perament, and health, makes frequent classification neces- 
sary. This is easily accomplished by promoting the few 
pupils who distance the majority of their classmates into 
the next class above, separated as it ought to be by an 
interval of less than half a year. The bright pupils thus 
promoted have to struggle to make up the ground covered 
in the interval between the two classes ; but they are 
nearly always able to accomplish this, and generally will in 
two years' time need another promotion from class to class. 
The Procrustean character of the old city systems has 
been removed by this device." The abandonment of the 



I 86 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

examination as the sole means of measuring the progress 
of the pupil, and the greater reliance upon the teachers' 
judgment, have also materially aided in bringing about this 
reform. 

It must not be thought, however, that the question is as 
yet by any means settled, or that the final word on this 
subject has been spoken. While it is not probable that the 
schools will ever return to the former method of deciding 
upon promotion, many thoughtful men believe that the 
examination has a place in educational practice, and in a 
complete scheme of instruction. I shall consider this 
question in the following chapter. 

Object of Promotion. — What is the object of promo- 
tion ? It may be remarked that promotion in itself does 
not advance the pupil an iota in knowledge, though the 
child and the parent may think that it does. The sole 
object of promotion is to place the pupil where he can do 
the best work. If he has mastered the work in a given 
class, or has so far mastered it as to be able to accomplish 
more in a higher class, he should be advanced. He may 
even be promoted on trial as a stimulus to him, his contin- 
uance in the higher class to be dependent upon his dispo- 
sition and ability to maintain a good standing there. 
Whenever either of these conditions exist, whether at the 
end of the term or at any other time, a trial should be 
accorded the pupil. The point is that he shall be placed 
where he can get the most out of his school life, and no 
rigid system should be allowed to defeat this end. I con- 
ceive this to be the purpose of promotion. 

If the pupil can get the highest good by remaining in 
his present class, he should be kept there, regardless of 



PROMOTION. 187 

his own entreaties and of outside pressure. It is even a 
greater wrong to hurry the pupil over a course more rap- 
idly than he is able to master it well than to require him 
to go too slowly, for in the former case he gets only a 
superficial view, while in the latter he gains thoroughness 
and perfect mastery. The Germans seem to have this 
thought in mind in having only six years of work specified 
in their course, although they require eight years of school 
attendance in which to accompUsh that work. Instead of 
the child being hurried from grade to grade as though the 
sole end of school-work were promotion, he rarely com- 
pletes the six grades in six years, but drops back at least 
twice, so that it takes him eight years to complete the 
course. Now, I do not advocate the adoption of this plan 
in American schools. It has very serious defects which 
the Germans themselves recognize ; but it certainly tends 
to wonderful thoroughness in all school-work. It would 
seem that holding the pupils back would be discouraging 
to them, and that there would be little incentive to earnest 
application. I have the testimony of adult Germans that 
the plan works well, that the repetition of a year's work, 
especially the last, adds to the clearness of the subjects, 
and fixes much that had not been well understood. The 
last year, instead of being irksome, is described as being 
full of interest. 

The child should be promoted, then, or held back, as 
the case may be, according to his personal needs. The 
mere act of promotion has no educational value whatever. 
There are schools where the subject of promotion is upper- 
most in the minds of the pupils, where teachers labor for 
that end, where parents are on the alert with reference to 
it, and where the whole school sentiment of a community 



1 88 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

centres around this idea. Pupils are moved forward rapidly, 
but at the expense of sound educational progress, as their 
career in higher institutions amply proves. Such an ideal 
of school- work and such an atmosphere cannot fail ulti- 
mately to work harm. 

The proper ideal in a school community, as to promotion, 
is reached when the aim is thoroughness in the mastery 
of all school-work, when pupils and parents have absolute 
confidence in the teacher's ability, judgment, and disposi- 
tion to place the child where he can get the most good 
and do the best work. When this is being done for the 
child, it makes but little difference what the grade in which 
he is placed is called ; the school is doing its best for him. 

Frequency of Promotion. — For many reasons there 
should be stated times for promotion. A goal is set towards 
which both pupils and teacher may aim. While the act 
of promotion, as we have seen, does not advance the child 
in knowledge, it indicates an end reached, and evidences 
progress by means of standards that are understood. 
Thus, when we say that the pupil is in the sixth grade, 
every one understands that preceding grades have been 
passed, and that certain work, the scope of which is 
marked out, is being done. ., Each promotion marks an 
event in the child's life, perhaps changes him to a higher 
room and another teacher. It stimulates him to renewed 
endeavor in his new environment. Children love change ; 
and while this may be so frequent as to cause unrest and 
instability, — perhaps nervousness, — change in their occu- 
pation and environment is essential. 

I have said that -promotion should be made at stated 
times, at least so far as the class as a whole is concerned. 



PROMOTION. 189 

Otherwise the work of the school is broken up, the classes 
are disintegrated, steady, systematic progress is inter- 
fered with, superficiality is encouraged, and, as we have 
seen, undue prominence is given to the mere act of pro- 
motion. Individual pupils will be moved forward or 
backward whenever it is found that the peculiarities of 
their case demand such action. But the class as a whole 
should continue its work until the end of a stated period, 
which, however, must not be too long. If some pupils 
show superior ability in given subjects, and yet not enough 
to warrant advancement before the regular time, no great 
harm will be done if they are held back for a short inter- 
val. Although they may perform their tasks better than 
others, the watchful teacher will have no difficulty in keep- 
ing them profitably employed. There is an abundance of 
correlated material suitable for every grade that may be 
offered to keep them busy and furnish a broader view of 
the work than may be required of the whole class. This 
will prove no loss to them, but rather a decided gain. In 
the best sense, the child is being educated, and his educa- 
tion is the purpose of the school ; and if this aim is secured, 
it makes but little difference what grade he is in. I am 
not arguing against promotion, but against making it the 
chief end of school-work. Let it be an event that comes 
at stated periods, which gives evidence to parents and to the 
world that the child has successfully mastered certain work, 
that he is prepared to enter upon another grade. Let the 
child find joy in the recognition of success to which pro- 
motion is a testimonial, but let him find more joy in the 
knowledge he has obtained, and in the consciousness of 
complete mastery of his tasks. 

A bright boy of about twelve years of age wished to 



IpO A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

enter my school. In examining him I asked, "What do 
you know, my lad .'* " "Well, sir," he replied, "I don't 
know much of anything." " Where have you been at 
school.? " I next inquired. "I have been in a number of 
schools, but in none very long," was his answer. " What 
grade do you expect to enter.?" I pursued. "You will 
have to put me in a very low grade," said he. After 
questioning him concerning various subjects, I found that he 
really had been very poorly taught, and therefore I placed 
him in a grade two or three years below that of his age, and 
he was perfectly satisfied. I kept my eye upon him, how- 
ever, and, at the suggestion of his teacher, moved him up a 
grade after a few days. I promoted him again in a short 
time, and finally found where he could do the best work. 
Now, neither the boy nor the classes suffered by this 
proceeding. Any watchful teacher will soon discover if a 
pupil is out of place in a given class, and will promptly take 
steps to put him where he belongs. 

There should be two stated promotions each year, and 
these will be sufficient for a large proportion of the class. 
This plan may be modified, especially in large schools 
where there are two or more parallel classes in each grade, 
by having one division called A, and another B, and so on, 
the work in the higher divisions being more advanced 
respectively. It can also be applied in small schools by 
forming different divisions in the same class, which could 
be plus ( + ) and minus ( — ). Thus, bright pupils would 
not be obliged to wait even till, the semi-annual promotion 
of the whole class before being advanced to higher work. 

In no case should the bright and the dull pupils be 
segregated. Bright pupils need not be retarded in their 
progress by association with those who must proceed more 



PROMOTION. 191 

slowly. They learn to be more thorough, while, on the 
other hand, their quickness of perception stimulates the 
slow pupil to greater intellectual activity. It is not sacri- 
ficing one for the other, for there is mutual benefit to 
both the bright and the dull child by association. Be- 
sides, as has been shown elsewhere, there is an abundance 
of extra material available to those who are capable of 
doing more than the regular tasks. 

With semi-annual promotions, with elasticity in grading, 
with the use of subdivisions indicated by plus and minus, 
and with the advancement of special cases that stand out 
prominently, whenever the teacher is satisfied that it is 
best, the advantages and the economy of a grading system 
can be secured without loss to individual pupils. Class 
interest and class spirit will be awakened and maintained, 
and steady, wholesome, and sure progress will be assured. 

Importance of the Teacher's Judgment. — The grade 
teacher, who daily instructs the class, who knows the per- 
sonal characteristics of each pupil better than the pupil 
himself or his parents know them, who is an educational 
expert, who is sincere and devoted, who is studying the 
welfare of his pupils, — such a teacher is the most impor- 
tant factor in deciding the question of promotion, and 
he will not base his final judgment upon an examination, a 
test, a review, or the daily record, — any one of these 
alone, — but possibly upon several or all of these elements. 
He will also consider the physical condition of the child, 
weigh well the probabilities of success in a higher grade, 
and then determine whether or not he should promote. 
The sole question is, Whei'e can the pupil get the most 
good? When that is decided, that is the grade into which 



J92 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



the child must be put. The teacher's judgment and knowl- 
edge of all of the conditions and of the child's capabilities 
are the most important factors in reaching this decision. 

In doubtful cases, the advice of the principal, of the 
teacher of the next higher class, and perhaps of the whole 
faculty, may be summoned. Consultation between the 
teachers most directly interested, affords an opportunity to 
call attention to any peculiarities that the child may pos- 
sess, and it enables several teachers to act in concert for 
the welfare of the pupil. By such a plan the dangers of 
rigid classification will be avoided, and each individual child 
will be fully cared for. At the same time the advantages 
of a definite system and the inspiration of class example 
and spirit will be retained. 

Means of Determining the Fitness of a Pupil to be 
Promoted. — How shall the teacher satisfy himself that 
the child's mastery of the subject is sufficient to warrant 
his advancement to a higher class ? Various means have 
been used in the past, the most common one being the 
examination. At the end of the term or year the pupil 
was examined, and if he reached the required percentage 
he moved forward ; if not, he remained in the same class 
until the end of another like period, when he tried again. 
There are several weaknesses in this plan, as follows : 
( I ) It does not always discover the truth as to the child's 
knowledge of the subject — he may be nervous or ill, and 
not do himself justice ; on the other hand, he may be 
fortunate in having "crammed " upon the very questions 
asked without possessing any adequate acquaintance with 
the subject. (2) When the pupil has failed to pass, he is 
sent back for too long a period, thereby discouraging him, 



PROMOTION. IC)3 

and perhaps causing his withdrawal from school. Or, if he 
remains to go over the entire term's work, he does not find 
sufficient profitable employment. It fails to meet the 
requirement that the school must place the child where he 
can secure the greatest benefit. (3) It puts the respon- 
sibility of deciding as to the thoroughness of a whole 
term's work upon perhaps a single hour's trial. Under 
the stress and anxiety of this responsibility the child often 
fails to do himself justice. This objection may fall to the 
ground with adult persons who have learned self-command, 
who possess the maturity and strength to weigh the ques- 
tions and collect their knowledge, and who have judgment 
and experience in such matters. But it is a valid objection 
with young children. (4) It is very difficult to formulate 
questions that will be simple and comprehensible to chil- 
dren, and yet exhaustive enough to furnish proof that the 
subject has been mastered. (5) When the examination is 
the sole means of determining fitness for promotion, the 
teacher is tempted to encourage cramming by drilling 
upon old examination papers, by anticipating probable 
questions, and otherwise definitely preparing his pupils for 
examinations. The leading motive of both teacher and 
pupils becomes, not the study of the subject for the sake 
of knowledge and power, but the mere " passing " the ex- 
amination. Pernicious indeed does such a system become 
when the board of education and the community estimate 
the efficiency of the teacher and of the school by the pro- 
portion of pupils who succeed in successfully undergoing 
the examinations under such circumstances. Add to this 
the practice of advancing the teachers themselves upon the 
basis of their success in getting pupils through examina- 
tions, and the worst evils of such a system will be realized. 



194 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

The Other means by which the question of fitness is 
decided are tests, marking of daily recitations and aver- 
aging the records, or by a combination of these. In the 
following chapter I shall consider these means separately, 
and endeavor to point out the use of each in aiding the 
teacher to decide whether the pupil is ready for promotion. 



CHAPTER XV. 

EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. 

I HAVE thus far treated examinations as a means of dis- 
covering the fitness of the child for advancement, and have 
shown how inadequate they are for this purpose. I shall 
now discuss the subject of examinations itself. In order 
that there may be a clear understanding of terms, it may 
be stated that by an examination is meant an investigation 
or test, given by a proper authority, for the purpose of 
proving the knowledge or capacity of the persons examined 
in order to determine their fitness for something sought by 
them, as a degree, promotion, a testimonial of quahfi cation, 
etc. An examination may be oral or written, public or 
private, comprehensive or narrow. Public oral examina- 
tions are apt to assume the nature of exhibitions, and 
should therefore be discouraged with children, who on such 
occasions are under unnatural excitement, and are there- 
fore not likely to do themselves justice, while the disposition 
to "show off " is not to be encouraged. 

There are three things that distinguish an examination : 
I. It comes at a set time, as once a month, at the end of 
a term, before admission to an institution, or preliminary 
to an appointment in the civil service, etc. Because its 
date is fixed, opportunity is afforded to make special prepara- 
tion for it. Here arises the danger of deferring preparation 
until the last moment, and then cramming for the definite 
purpose of passing. A distinction is to be made between 

195 



196 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

cramming, and special preparation under urgent stress. All 
hard work by the student, even though finished at the last 
moment, is not cramming. It is a splendid thing to possess 
the power of gathering one's self together for a supreme 
effort to do an unusual amount of work. Such exigencies 
occur all through life — in the bank or the mercantile house 
at the close of the month, at railroad stations during certain 
hours of the day, in almost every walk of life. Every man 
must be trained to fulfil his usual duties well, but also on 
occasion to do unusual work, to " spurt" as it were. One 
must be able to summon all his powers and employ them 
for a brief period under high pressure. So there is no 
objection to calling upon pupils to perform unusual tasks 
occasionally. But the bank clerk, the railroad agent, the 
train despatcher, does not fail to make all possible previous 
preparation. He does not waste his time till the last 
moment, and then attempt to make up for his negligence 
by herculean efforts. He performs all his routine duties 
at their proper time, and gets ready for the period of 
special exertion. The student who faithfully does the work 
of each day as it comes along, mastering each lesson and 
each subject as best he can, may indeed review that work 
before the final trial, and such review cannot be denomi- 
nated cramming. He is simply summarizing, classifying, 
fixing the material which he already possesses in order to 
be able to bring it forward when called upon to do so. 
Under the time limitations of an examination, he is perfectly 
justified in making due preparation for the emergency. 

But the student, on the other hand, who loafs, cuts his reci- 
tations, fails to perform his tasks day by day, begins to burn 
midnight oil and put forth extraordinary effort only a few 
days before the examination comes, in order to get enough 



EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. 1 97 

of the term's work to pass muster with the professor — 
such a student engages in cramming. The first-named 
student may even study hard at the last, but his purpose is 
not only to secure a high mark, but also to fix his knowl- 
edge. He then presents himself at the examination, 
conscious of strength, and not dependent upon "luck," or 
familiarity with the peculiarities of the examiner to carry 
him through. If he fail, it will be because the questions 
have not been fair, or because he has not yet fully pre- 
pared himself in the subject, and not because he has 
failed to be honest with himself or remiss in the perform- 
ance of his duties. 

The second student works with but one end in view, 
namely, to pass ; and he cares but little if the material 
escapes him after it has served its end. His purpose is to 
answer successfully the required seventy or seventy-five 
per cent of the questions which he may have succeeded in 
anticipating. The former, by doing his best all of the 
time, has acted upon a principle that is essential to success 
in life ; while the latter has pursued a careless and shiftless 
course, which forebodes ruin to character and failure in 
business. The one student does honest, hard work 
throughout the year, and perhaps exerts himself even more 
than usual as the examination approaches ; the other stu- 
dent idles away his time during the regular work, and 
crams for the final test. 

I have said that a characteristic of the examination is 
that it comes at a set time. Sometimes it is conducted 
once a year ; again, and more commonly, at the end of the 
term ; and, in some schools, it occurs once a month. The 
practice of monthly examinations is to be strongly con- 
demned. It keeps the school keyed up to a high pitch of 



198 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

nervous tension; it makes all school-work centre around 
this one idea ; it occasions a vast amount of unnecessary 
and unprofitable labor for the teacher in reading an end- 
less number of examination papers, in keeping records, and 
in making out reports ; it is unnatural and unwholesome to 
school interests, and provocative of bitterness and unseemly 
strife ; it puts a premium upon false methods, and lays 
stress upon what should be a mere incident in a scheme 
of education ; it is quite unnecessary as a means of measur- 
ing progress or of determining the efficiency of work. If 
examinations are to be held, two or three a year are quite 
enough to satisfy all requirements. I shall endeavor to 
show in later discussions that the ends served by these 
even can be met by other means in the ordinary, common 
school work. Examinations will doubtless always be em- 
ployed in many cases where adults are involved, where 
much depends upon the fitness of the candidate, and where 
the examiner has not been his teacher. 

2. An exaini7iation should cover the whole field in ques- 
tion. It should be broad and comprehensive. If a subject 
has been completed, an examination should include the 
whole ground covered, provided it is the means employed 
to determine the proficiency of the student. If an institu- 
tion admits students, advances them from class to class, or 
determines fitness for degrees by means of examinations, 
such examinations must be comprehensible and thorough, — 
otherwise the good name of the institution will suffer. The 
honor sought will be considered worthy of attainment just 
in proportion to the genuineness of the examination through 
which it is secured. 

To cover the ground in the best manner, topical treat- 
ment, where possible, affords the most satisfactory means. 



EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. 199 

It furnishes opportunity to exercise judgment, to show 
breadth of thought and completeness of knowledge, as well 
as to indicate mastery of details and acquaintance with facts. 
If set questions instead of topics are given, as may be 
necessary with young children, these questions should be 
simple, clear, and comprehensible, but not suggestive so as 
to hint at answers or to admit of guesses. The answers 
should be in full statements. 

3. A third feature of the examination is that much de- 
pends upon it. It marks the successful completion of a 
subject ; and if the examination is passed, it stamps the can- 
didate as ready to enter upon a new phase of work, to 
be promoted, to be admitted to a higher institution, to 
receive a degree, etc. Herein lies the chief objection 
to the examination as a deciding element, especially with 
young children. The anxiety under which the child labors 
and the unnatural excitement prevent him from doing him- 
self justice, as has been shown elsewhere. It remains to 
be seen whether a safer, more accurate, and more natural 
means of determining the child's preparation for advance- 
ment may not be devised. That the evils enumerated 
above have actually appeared in many schools, sometimes 
in a m.ost aggravated form, admits of abundant proof, and 
sometimes their presence has been attended with saddest 
results. 

Educational Value of Examinations The examination 

as an educational means occupies a place for which it is 
difficult to find a complete substitute. Let us look at some 
of the advantages of the examination. 

I. It tests the abihty to summon all of one's powers 
upon occasion for extraordinary exertion, and to exhibit 



100 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

the knowledge and power possessed upon a given theme, 
as we have already shown. 

2. It trains the student in the use of good language, 
concisely put, under limitations of time. 

3. It requires the exercise of judgment as to essentials 
and non-essentials. 

4. It solidifies and clarifies the knowledge of the sub- 
ject in the mind of the pupil. 

5. It shows both pupil and teacher wherein the prepara- 
tion has been weak, or where it has proved satisfactory. 

There is certainly great educational value in each of the 
foregoing propositions ; and if no substitute for the exami- 
nation can be devised that will furnish the same advan- 
tages, it must be retained. 

Character of the Examination. — It should be a fair test 
of work that has been covered, should be free from enig- 
mas, and the language employed should be so clear that 
there can be no doubt as to the meaning of the question. 
Puzzling questions and "hard nuts to crack" may some- 
times be offered during recitation in order to arouse men- 
tal energy, but not in the examination, where the entire 
strength of the candidate is to be devoted to proving the 
thoroughness of his understanding of the subject. The 
large proportion of a class that has been taught by the 
examiner himself should pass, else the questions have been 
too difficult or the teaching has been bad. A certain col- 
lege professor made his examinations so difficult that nine- 
tenths of the students were bound to fail. A large part 
of his classes would leave the room upon seeing the ques- 
tions, without attempting to answer them. As a conse- 
quence, the most of the members of his classes were 



EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. oqi 

conditioned, and therefore compelled to take a second 
examination. This, however, was always made so easy 
that no one need fail, and thus the class would ultimately 
be advanced. It is needless to say that the students soon 
learned the professor's peculiarities, and generally waited 
for the second examination. 

The examination should not be a mere test of memory, 
or a question of fact. Although it must include both of 
these, it is of far greater importance that it shall deter- 
mine the accuracy, thoroughness, and power attained by 
the pupil. Of course, the degree of judgment to be ex- 
pected depends upon the maturity of those examined. 

Tests. — Many schools have recently adopted a system 
of tests for the purpose of assisting the teacher in deciding 
the question of promotion. Unlike the examination, the 
test occurs at the regular time of the recitation, covers a 
limited amount of work, is unannounced, and is not of vital 
importance. It is given without disturbance of the accus- 
tomed routine of the school, and without loss of time, while 
the examination requires several days, during which the 
regular exercises are abandoned and the school thrown into 
confusion. In set examinations the whole machinery of the 
school is disorganized, an unnatural and disquieting spirit 
pervades the pupils, the nervous tension is very great, and 
the best results of school-work cannot be secured. On the 
other hand, the test, occurring as it does at the regular 
recitation period, not only avoids these evils, but it also calls 
forth the best effort of the pupils, because the environment 
is not unusual, being the same as that of every other day. 

As the test covers only a limited amount of work, and 
as it may take the place of a regular recitation, it may 



202 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

occur whenever a phase of a subject is completed. It may 
be as frequent as the teacher deems necessary without any 
baneful effects, because it is given without previous notice 
and because little stress is laid upon it. No nervousness 
or unnatural excitement will attend a test given under the 
foregoing conditions. The moment, however, that it is 
announced, it partakes of the nature of an examination, 
and the calling of it by another name will not change its 
nature. Pupils will begin to cram for it and get anxious 
over it. It will be difficult to convince them that the 
teacher does not attach great importance to the test. 

Care should be taken by the teacher to make clear to 
the pupils that the question of advancement or promotion 
does not depend upon the test alone. It is only one of 
several means employed to determine that question. Its 
main purpose is to enable the teacher and the pupils them- 
selves to perceive how thoroughly the work has been ac- 
complished, in order that weaknesses and errors may be 
corrected later. While the pupils will understand that more 
depends upon a test than upon the ordinary recitation, and 
therefore will exert themselves to do their best, yet the con- 
ditions are so normal that, as we have said, they will not 
be seriously disturbed, as in the case of the examination. 

The genuine test shows what the pupils really know — 
proves it to them as well as to the teacher. Weaknesses dis- 
covered can be corrected by later reviews. This is an impor- 
tant advantage of the test. It also secures the educational 
advantages to be attained by the examination, namely, the 
ability to exert unusual power upon occasion, to put readily 
into good language knowledge possessed, to select the es- 
sential and reject the non-essential, to clarify in his own 
mind the materials at command, and to show where weak- 



EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. 203 

nesses exist. The test, therefore, may be employed to 
secure the ends sought in the examination, and it will 
sufficiently guide the teacher in determining the progress 
of his pupils. It will wholly suffice in grades below the 
high school, and possibly in the high school also. If the 
examination is still found necessary in a part of the high- 
school work, in college, in discovering fitness for degrees, 
teachers' licenses, or the civil service, the danger will be 
minimized because it involves persons of maturity, who are 
capable of exercising judgment, and who are not easily dis- 
composed. Even with adult students, the test will often 
fully satisfy all the demands and fulfil the requirements 
which the examination is expected to meet. In the ele- 
mentary grades, at any rate, the test may well be employed 
as a substitute for the examination. 

Reviews. — The review also has its place as a determin- 
ing factor in promotion, and likewise as a constant edu- 
cative influence. Reviews should occur daily, and be 
systematic and persistent in character. Each recitation 
should begin with a review of previous work in order to 
connect the known with the unknown, to call up what is 
already possessed by the pupil as an introduction to the 
' new material that is to be presented. It also deepens the 
impression of the old, classifies much that was not fully 
understood, and fixes the past lessons, while it prepares 
the class for the reception of the new lesson. " Repeti- 
tion, repetition, repetition, should be the eternal watch- 
word," said the late Karl Volkmar Stoy. The questions 
are put differently in the review, the subject is presented 
in a new light from that of the ordinary recitation, and 
therefore the pupils obtain a firmer hold upon the lesson. 



204 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, 



But besides the daily review in connection with each 
recitation, there must also be the more extended and 
formal review which reaches back over the work of days 
and weeks. Children forget what they have been over, and 
their knowledge will be revived and fixed by the review. 
Teachers have often been mortified to find that their pupils 
have failed in subjects that were believed to have been well 
taught, and in which the children were thought to be pro- 
ficient. Doubtless the failure was occasioned by insuf- 
ficient reviewing of the work, whereas a proper method 
would have brought all of the units acquired day by day 
into one consistent whole. The review should aim to look 
over the entire field and bring all of the parts into a single 
relation, comprising a symmetrical structure of the knowl- 
edge imparted. 

Hence while frequent reviews may be taken to keep the 
interest alive, and to keep the whole work before the class, 
a general and exhaustive review should be had when a 
subject or some phase of it is completed, rather than peri- 
odically. Weekly or monthly reviews do not meet this 
condition. Stated reviews, whether or not the class is 
ready for them, become stereotyped and formal. If held 
upon fixed days, as Friday afternoons, many children come 
to look upon them as a bore, a needless and valueless exer- 
cise, from which they escape by remaining out of school. 
Parents, too, are more ready to listen to their children's 
plea for a half -holiday on the ground that *' there is nothing 
but a review." Thus, instead of attaining the educational 
end sought, the periodical review becomes a fertile means 
for defeating that end. If, however, the formal review 
occurs whenever a subject is completed, the regular work 
of the school is not disturbed. The exercise fits in where 



EXAMINATIONS, TESTS, AND REVIEWS. 



205 



it belongs as a part of the educational plan in completely 
rounding out the treatment of the subject. 

It may be urged that the stated review affords an oppor- 
tunity for parents to visit the school and witness the work 
which their children are doing. This makes the school 
exercises a mere show, which is most pernicious in its 
effect upon the character of the children. It does not 
exhibit the true work of the school, and therefore it is 
unnatural and misleading. This practice is carried to an 
extreme in German schools in what is known as the annual 
"Priifung." Parents, who are excluded from regular school- 
work, are invited to be present upon these occasions. The 
children are put through a series of questions upon which 
they have been previously drilled. No pupil is promoted 
on account of his answers to the questions, that matter 
having already been settled. Care is taken that only the 
pupils who are likely to be a credit to the school, are allowed 
to recite. It doubtless causes parents whose children 
appear and do well to feel some pride in their achievements, 
but both pupils and teachers know that the whole affair is 
a sham. German educators universally condemn the prac- 
tice, and have repeatedly petitioned the authorities to dis- 
continue it. In some sections these petitions have secured 
the abandonment of the exercise. Inasmuch as American 
parents are not prohibited from visiting the schools, let 
them attend the regular exercises and witness the daily 
work of their children, and thus obtain a truer idea of what 
the school is accomplishing. If the teacher desires to get 
the attention of the school patrons, let him prepare special 
exercises for that definite purpose, and invite them in a 
body. The review of the school-work should not be 
degraded into a public exhibition. 



2o6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Reviews should be both oral and written. By the oral 
review, the pupil is trained to express himself fluently upon 
a topic while standing. It is most desirable to secure 
accurate, connected, and logical statements, in good English. 
The review admits of such treatment far better than the 
daily lesson, where the knowledge is still fragmentary. 
The written review accomplishes the same end in written 
expression. It has the advantage that all of the pupils are 
called upon to answer each question simultaneously, and 
therefore it may be complete and satisfactory. The oral 
review, however, should not be neglected. Care must be 
taken not to let the written review run into a test. As the 
test carries far less weight than the examination, so the 
written review should carry less weight than the test. 
The examination, and equally the test, must never enter a 
new field ; must never touch ground that has not pre- 
viously been covered, because so much depends upon them. 
But the review may suggest new work without a wrong 
being committed, since httle depends upon it. 

To the review, the test, and sometimes the examina- 
tion, is added the larger factor of the teacher's judgment 
based upon daily contact during recitation, and in the 
intimate and sympathetic relations with the children. 
Further, there is the fact that promotion in itself does not 
increase knowledge. With all of these agencies at his 
command, and with a sincere desire to place the child 
where his greatest progress will be attained and his 
greatest good subserved, we shall find that but few mis- 
takes will be made in the matter of promotion. At the 
same time the work of the school will proceed in a natural, 
salutary manner, and the real purposes of education will be 
fostered and furthered. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE RECITATION. 

The use of the term "recitation" is rather unfortunate. 
It doubtless grew out of the earher practice of "hearing" 
lessons when the teachers were untrained, and when text- 
books were prepared with a view to that method, being 
made up of questions and answers. The pupils learned 
the answers, the teacher read the questions and saw to it 
that the answers of the pupils fitted those in the book. 
Thus the work of the pupils consisted in reciting, and the 
period in which this was done was called the recitation. 
This was a very easy method to follow, one that was per- 
haps necessary so long as the qualifications of teachers 
were so low. Any one who could read, write, and cipher, 
and, above all, maintain discipline, could be employed to 
teach school. Better prepared teachers and more scientific 
methods of instruction have removed the necessity of 
following such a practice, and yet the term "recitation" 
still clings to this exercise. In the absence of any better 
name, doubtless this will be retained even though it 
become more and more a misnomer. 

The Germans use a word that expresses their idea of 
this exercise, namely, " Unterrichtsstunde," or instruction- 
period. This term fits their method, that of instructing or 
imparting, the pupils having but few text-books. There 
are no alternating periods of study and recitation as is 

207 



2o8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

common m American schools, nor do children need to 
do much home-work. " How do the pupils learn their 
lessons } " may well be asked if they do not study at school 
or at home. They learn their lessons by means of the 
instruction of the teacher in class. He imparts the lesson, 
and they absorb what he gives. Through skilful question- 
ing he finds out how well his pupils have comprehended his 
teaching. Even the questioning has the purpose of in- 
structing as well as of proving their knowledge. The 
most serious defect of this method is that it leads the 
children to depend upon their teacher for all of their 
material, and hence they are unable to investigate and 
discover for themselves. Although they leave school 
with an excellent mastery of the subjects included in 
their school course, they lack the ability and the disposi-. 
tion to go on with their education. This is a most vital 
criticism of the German method, for the most important 
equipment of a child upon leaving school is the ability 
and disposition to help himself ; and the justification of 
this criticism is manifest in the fact that the fine training 
of the eight years' common-school course for the mass of 
the people is rarely followed by any further education. 

Does not the truth lie between the purely reciting 
method of American schools and the instruction method of 
the German schools } It is certain that in every recitation 
there must be something taught. When the teacher finds 
that a period has passed without the pupils having been 
instructed, he cannot but admit failure. On the other 
hand, the pupils, especially young children, must have the 
opportunity to tell what they know, must answer ques- 
tions. By telling or reciting, children directly instructed 
not only fix the lessons in their own minds, but other 



THE RECITATION. 



209 



children learn through hearing them recite. Every recita- 
tion, then, must consist of instruction by the teacher and 
recitation by the pupils. This double activity serves to 
fix the material in the minds of the children, while it 
prepares them to continue their education after they have 
left the school and are no longer under the direction 
of the teacher. 

I. Assigning the Lesson. — When should the lesson for 
the next day be assigned ? The practice of many teachers 
is to perform this important duty at the close of the recita- 
tion. This enables them to see how well the present 
lesson has been prepared before going on to the next. If 
the periods are long, say thirty or forty minutes, or if there 
are automatic signals to give warning of the close of the 
period, this plan is practicable. Few of our schools, how- 
ever, are equipped with an automatic signal system, and 
the periods are necessarily short, especially in a mixed 
school. When the next day's lesson is assigned at the 
end of the period, there is danger that its importance will 
not be sufficiently appreciated. "Take the next two 
pages," or "W^ork the following five examples," says the 
teacher at the last moment when the time for dismissal of 
the class has come and another class must be called. 
This indicates a lack of appreciation of the importance that 
should be attached to this duty. Pupils go to their seats 
or to their homes to flounder and become discouraged in 
their preparation, when a few words of wise direction and 
instruction would have enabled them to proceed intelli- 
gently. It is a part of the work of assigning the new 
lesson to call attention to the essentials, to point out 
special difficulties, and to give such hints as may be neces- 



2IO A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

sary to aid the pupil. This can be done without robbing 
them of the pleasure of discovery and of doing the work 
themselves. I have shown elsewhere that no teacher 
should do work that pupils themselves can do (see p. 162). 

Failure properly to assign and explain the lesson often 
causes pupils to seek help from their parents, thus arous- 
ing criticism against the school for setting such hard 
tasks. Perhaps also the parents antagonize the work of 
the school by the employment of antiquated methods in 
assisting their children. I have shown (see p. 162) what 
the parent's duty in this matter is. It is a part of the 
teacher's work to prepare the child to do his work, and 
this preparation is made in the assignment of the lesson. In 
general, this should occur at the beginning of the recitation. 
Then sufficient time can be taken to give the necessary 
instruction concerning the subject. This is sometimes 
more important than hearing the lesson of the day, espe- 
cially if a new field is to be entered. When the pupils are 
ready to take up new work, it matters little whether or not 
the old lesson is heard ; but it is very essential that the 
new work be explained. It may be necessary in such a 
case to take the whole period in explaining and assigning 
the lesson, and great profit to the class may follow such 
instruction. 

With the next lesson outlined, the teacher can devote 
the remaining time to the day's work without distraction and 
with little thought of the flight of time. If, however, it 
should be found that the pupils have not accomplished the 
day's task, and are not ready to take up the new work 
assigned, only a moment will be needed to say, " Children, 
as you have not quite mastered this work, we shall have to 
take it over again instead of the new lesson." This will 



THE RECITATION. 211 

not often be necessary, for children soon learn what is 
expected of them, and try to measure up to the standard. 
Confidence on the part of the teacher awakens in the chil- 
dren a desire to be worthy of confidence. To assign the 
lesson at the beginning of the recitation may be considered 
as an expression of confidence that the children have been 
faithful in their work, and that they are ready to move for- 
ward into a new field. 

2. How to Study. — Many pupils waste a great deal of 
time in futile and aimless work. If the lesson has been 
properly assigned, the children will not only know what 
the task is, but also how to accomplish it. Some general 
observations, however, may assist in attaining the power of 
wisely studying. 

a. The prepai^ation. — Before beginning to study, the 
child should get all the materials, books, etc, that he needs, 
so as not to be interrupted. It w^ould be an unwise farmer 
that would begin his harvesting without seeing to it that his 
tools, his barns, his machines, were at hand and in order ; 
or a foolish carpenter that would commence to build a house 
without collecting the materials and the tools he needed. So 
the child must be taught to get everything ready before he 
begins to study. 

b. A time for everything. — The pupil must not be 
allowed to turn from one thing to another at every impulse ; 
hence the importance of specifying in the daily program 
the work of the study as well as of the recitation periods. 
One thing at a time, and that the right thing, should be 
the motto. This prevents the study being desultory ; it 
does not allow the pupil to attempt to get a smattering of 
many things, while, in reality, he acquires nothing. Children 



212 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

must be taught to take up the study of each lesson in its 
proper time, and stick to each particular task until it is 
mastered. 

c. The essentials of the lesson. — In every task there 
are essential things, and those less essential. It is impor- 
tant to be able to detect these, so as to enable one to devote 
time and strength to the most vital matters. It is a part 
of the teacher's duty to call attention to the points that are 
essential and are to be emphasized. This belongs to the 
work of instruction. 

d. Conce7itration. — It is not the number of hours spent 
upon a lesson, but the intensity of the work, that counts. 
To spend a great deal of time dawdling over a lesson is not 
study. A student was in the habit of spending three hours 
on his Caesar. He resolved to shorten the time by concen- 
trating all of his energy while he worked. He soon reduced 
the time to two hours, then to one, and finally he acquired 
the habit of doing in half an hour what had formerly occu- 
pied three hours, and doing it fully as well. The pupil 
should be trained to bend his whole energy to a task, and 
to concentrate his entire attention when engaged in study. 
He must not allow himself to be disturbed by any external 
attractions or inconveniences. 

e. Thoroughness. — Whatever is worth doing at all, is 
worth doing well. Teach the pupil to master each step 
with thoroughness before proceeding to the next. In some 
subjects, it may be well to obtain a general view first, and 
then to take the particulars successively. It is better to 
be thorough with a part of the lesson, if that is all that the 
child is able to accomplish, than to get a smattering of the 
whole and a mastery of none. The teacher should be 
ready to accept a part well done, in preference to the 



THE RECITATION. 



213 



whole lesson poorly prepared, and the pupils should be 
taught to take this view of the case. 

f. Repetition. — Only by repeating the work many times 
can the learner fix it in mind. After each step has been 
taken, let the lesson as a whole be repeated until not only 
the particulars are known, but also the relations of the parts 
to each other and to the whole are established. The pupil 
must be taught to go over the work a sufficient number of 
times to make it clear to his mind and to fix it in his mem- 
ory. Although there may be no objection to the practice 
of letting a parent or some one else hear the lesson to see 
how well it is learned, especially with young children, the 
pupil should train himself to weigh his own knowledge, and 
estimate his thoroughness of preparation without the aid of 
other persons. At least this should be the ultimate end 
sought. 

g. Cojiclusion. — When the lesson is learned, let it be 
laid aside until the recitation. Many children fret over 
their lessons and scarcely think of anything else. They 
peep into books on their way to school or just before the 
class meets, to catch a last fleeting idea concerning the 
lesson. Let them be taught when they work to work 
with all their might, and when they play to play with all 
their might. Work and play — each has its part in life's 
activity, and neither must trespass upon the other. Pupils 
will recite better if, after studying according to the plan 
outlined in the foregoing, and after having completed their 
preparation, they dismiss all thought of the lesson until 
the recitation comes. 

The importance of teaching children how to study can- 
not be too strongly emphasized. If this lesson has been 
well taught, the child will do his work more easily and 



214 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



better. It will also prepare him to attack the problems of 
life with intelligence and wisdom, and with great hope of 
success. 

3. The Art of Questioning. — With young children 
question and answer will occupy a large part of the time 
of the recitation. Children lose interest unless they can 
take part in the exercises, while the lecture method is often 
satisfactory with adult students. Every teacher should 
study the art of questioning, as so much depends upon its 
successful application. The following suggestions may 
assist in this study : 

a. The questions should be simple and clear. — There 
should be no doubt in the minds of the pupils as to what 
the teacher means, in order that there may be the desired 
concentration of thought upon the answer. 

b. The questions sJiotdd be logical hi their seque^ice. — 
Although the child may not yet have reached the distinc- 
tive period of reasoning, the method of development and 
the arrangement of the questions must be logical. Other- 
wise there will be confusion in the child's mind in regard 
to the lesson. He will fail to obtain an adequate concep- 
tion of the teacher's motive. 

c. The questions should be the outgrowth of the teacher s 
full knowledge of the subject, and not the stereotyped 
questions of the text-book. — The questions in the text- 
book may be used to aid in review, to direct the thought 
to all phases of the subject, or to awaken interest in fur- 
ther investigation ; but they should not be used in con- 
ducting the recitation. The teacher should stand before 
his class so full of his theme that the flow of questions 
will be rapid, spontaneous, direct. They will be original so 



THE RECITATION. 



215 



far as their language, their order, and their purpose are 
concerned. Only when this is true will the recitation be 
enthusiastic, interesting, and profitable, especially with 
young children. 

d. The questions shotdd have a definite pttrpose. — 
Without a specific aim, no matter how interesting the man- 
ner of the teacher, or how well he puts his questions, the 
desired end will not be reached. A bright primary teacher 
who had just given an enthusiastic lesson was asked by 
the principal, who had been present during the recitation, 
" What was the purpose of that lesson t " "Why, I don't 
know," she replied in confusion. There must always be 
a clearly conceived purpose in every recitation, and even in 
each of the questions that are put to the class. 

e. The qitestions should be of such a nature as to stim- 
tdate thought. — Direct questions should generally be 
avoided. " Yes " and " No " answers do not prove thought. 
Single-word answers, as a rule, should be accepted only in 
rapid review. Where no thought has been aroused, the 
exercise must be considered a failure. 

4. Necessity of Attention. — A college professor was 
accustomed to become so absorbed in his teaching that he 
entirely lost sight of what was taking place in his class- 
room. At one time seven games were in progress simul- 
taneously during his lecture. Of course, there was no 
instruction for those who were playing games. The first 
essential in a recitation is attention, and not until that has 
been secured, is teaching possible. No recitation should 
begin until every pupil in the class is attentive. If the 
teacher is willing to continue an exercise with five per 
cent of the class inattentive, he will soon be obliged to be 



21 6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

satisfied if ten or fifty per cent are inattentive. But if he 
demands the attention of the whole class, and will not teach 
without it, he will soon get the class into the required con- 
dition. Nothing is so fatal to good order or successful 
instructing as indifference on the part of the teacher in the 
matter of attention. A young teacher was annoyed by 
several pupils in her class who were disposed to mischief. 
After reprimanding them without securing the desired re- 
sult, she took out her watch and silently noted the time, as 
she held the watch in her hand. " What are you doing 
that for.?" asked one of the boys. "Oh, I am taking 
account of the lost time," was her reply. "What for.?" 
was asked again. " Why, in order to know how long to 
keep you after school," was the quiet answer. In a 
moment every pupil in the class was in order and giving 
good attention, and the teacher had no further trouble 
with them. This plan was far more effective than scolding 
or loud demands for attention would have been. 

A few suggestions as to how to secure and maintain 
attention may be found profitable. 

a. All disturbing influences should be guarded against, — 
such as, the flapping of window-shades, wrong temperature 
of the room, draughts, sun shining in the pupil's face or on 
his desk, or annoyances inflicted upon him by other pupils. 
Attention cannot long be held if the room is uncomfort- 
able, if there is unusual noise, or if one pupil is sticking a 
pin into another. 

b. Secure the attitude of attention, — that is, an erect 
position, facing the teacher. If possible, the children 
should be allowed to sit with their hands free ; but it may 
be necessary to require them, temporarily at least, to fold 
their hands, especially if they be little children. In recita- 



THE RECITATION. 



217 



tion the pupils should be brought as close to the teacher 
as possible. It is difficult to hold the attention of pupils 
who are a long distance away, especially if other pupils in 
the room are engaged in study. Not only the attention 
but also the effectiveness of the instruction may be said to 
vary inversely as the square of the distance the pupil is 
away. 

c. Make the work interesting. — This duty rests upon 
the teacher ; and so long as the pupils are interested, their 
attention can be held, and no longer. Commands or arti- 
ficial stimuli will fail more than temporarily to arrest and 
hold the attention if interest be wanting. 

d. The recitations must not be too long. — With little 
children they should be very short, say ten or fifteen minutes. 
The length of the period depends also upon the subject. 
A class experimenting in physics can give attention much 
longer than one in history or logic. 

e. Never teach zvithout attention. — This is repeated 
merely to give emphasis to a most important requirement. 

5. Arousing Interest. — Closely connected with atten- 
tion is interest. Dr. Johnson says : " Interest is the 
mother of attention ; attention is the mother of memory ; 
to get memory, get her mother and her grandmother." 
If, then, the pupil is to remember the lesson, his attention 
must be gained through the awakening of his interest. 
With little children interest is aroused through concrete 
illustration. The child becomes interested in what he 
sees, hears, handles. Nor does the employment of the 
concrete, as a means of instruction, cease with little chil- 
dren. The preacher uses illustration to enliven and en- 
force the truths he would teach ; the lawyer employs it in 



21 8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

his advocacy of cases in court ; the surgeon must constantly 
utihze it in his cHnical work before classes. But with the 
child it is the principal means of awakening and retaining 
interest. 

It may be well here to caution the teacher that an illus- 
tration is to be used merely as a means to an end, and 
not as the end itself. Thus, in teaching number, the 
employment of a great variety of objects at one time is 
a detriment to the instruction. The interest of the class 
will be taken up with the objects rather than with the 
number to be taught. I have seen instructors attempt to 
teach the number six, employing oranges, sticks, marbles, 
beans, etc., as illustrative material. Objects of a single 
kind should be employed continuously in number work till 
the concrete illustration is no longer necessary. Without 
doubt blocks of uniform size constitute the best apparatus 
for elementary work in number. The pupils must not be 
distracted by the use of many objects ; the end sought, 
that is, the learning of the number, must be kept in the 
foreground. 

By this it is not meant that no variety is to be intro- 
duced. Children like change, and the teacher should be 
fertile in devices, so that if one fails another can be substi- 
tuted. My point is, that there must not be too many at 
once. Let there be variety in the manner of presenting 
the material, variety in illustration, variety in putting the 
questions. 

Again, direct interest may be secured through indirect 
means. If a child is found to possess a fondness for a 
thing, this fact may be utilized to secure his interest in 
something that he does not like. For example, one child 
likes drawing ; another is fond of birds, or plants, or na- 



THE RECITATION. 



219 



ture study ; another still likes to work with tools. Help 
this child in his favorite pursuit, on condition that he per- 
form the work which, in the teacher's broader view of life, 
is essential for him. Again, most boys have ideals as to 
their future which they hope to realize, though in later life 
these ideals may change, as we have seen elsewhere. Let 
the teacher avail himself of these interests. Thus, a boy 
dislikes arithmetic, but he hopes to be a storekeeper, or a 
banker, or an engineer. Success in either of these cannot 
be obtained without a knowledge of arithmetic. Employ 
his direct interest as to his future occupation in securing 
an interest in arithmetic. Through this means it often 
occurs that the interest becomes direct and the pupil ac- 
quires a fondness for what he had previously disliked. 
Dislike for studies is often occasioned by ignorance of 
them, or by inability to master them. Children are gen- 
erally interested in what they can do well. Show them 
how to accomplish the task, and interest will be gained. 

It does not follow by any means that a child should be 
excused from work that he does not like. He must be 
taught to attack difficult problems with courage, to perform 
unpleasant tasks because they ought to be performed. 
Every student finds subjects in the curriculum that he 
would gladly omit, but promotion or the final diploma can 
be secured only upon mastering the whole course. Over- 
coming these difficulties gives mental and moral fibre, 
which makes one strong to meet life's duties. The train- 
ing that makes men does not smooth away all trials, level 
mountains, prepare a bed of roses for the child. Pupils 
must learn to perform tasks because duty requires it, and 
because it is best that they should be performed, and not 
because it may be merely pleasurable. 



220 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Finally, the teacher himself must be interested in the 
subject of instruction. If he is not, no permanent interest 
can be awakened in the pupils. A member of my senior 
class once came to me and asked to be excused from continu- 
ing a certain subject. "Why do you wish to give up this 
work.?" I asked. "Because I cannot bear it," was the 
frank reply. Now, it is not pleasing to a teacher to be told 
by a pupil that she cannot bear his work. I was the 
teacher of this particular class, and according to the testi- 
mony of this girl I was a failure. Of course, she had no 
thought of personal criticism, and did not recognize that 
her request meant that. I recognized it, however, and 
keenly felt the situation. "But," I added, "you cannot 
graduate without this work." "Then I will not graduate," 
she promptly declared, showing how deep-seated her aver- 
sion had become. After a few moments' reflection, I pro- 
posed the following compromise : She was to continue in 
the class for two weeks and then come to me again, and 
if she still desired to be excused from the work, I 
promised that her wish should be granted. She con- 
sented, and I began to lay my plans to meet the case. 
I resolved that she should not desire to withdraw when 
the truce was concluded, and therefore employed every 
device I knew to make that recitation interesting and 
profitable. Needless to say, before the expiration of 
the time she came to me and said, "This has become 
the most interesting subject to me, and I have no desire 
to give it up." There was no further trouble from that 
source ; besides, I myself gained a new interest in that 
subject. The surest way to interest a class in any feature 
of school-work is for the teacher himself to secure an in- 
terest in that work. 



THE RECITATION. 221 

6. Use of the Blackboard. — American schoolrooms 
are usually liberally supplied with blackboards. All of the 
available space is utilized. Blackboards are intended not 
only for notices, decorations, teacher's work, etc., but also 
for the use of pupils. Classes can be sent to the board to 
write out a topic, outline a review, work an example, and 
the exercise is a most valuable practice for the pupils. It 
cultivates self-reliance, stimulates proper rivalry, shows the 
importance of accuracy, and trains the student in logical, 
concise, and clear expression. All work on the board 
should be neat and systematic. A plan of sending the 
pupils to the board should be adopted which will secure the 
most orderly and economical arrangement. Drill in this 
exercise will yield profitable results. The teacher should 
give especial attention to the manner of explaining black- 
board work, to the attitude of the pupil while engaged 
thereat, to the language used, as well as to the correctness 
of the work. 

The blackboard can thus be employed to impart and 
emphasize lessons that cannot well be taught otherwise. 
If, however, the exercises are loose and unsystematic, if 
disorder is occasioned, the blackboard becomes an evil 
rather than a valuable aid. 

7. Drill " Repetition, repetition," must be the eternal 

watchword if the material is to be well fixed in the minds 
of the pupils. Very often knowledge is brought to the 
threshold of the child's consciousness and then allowed to 
be dissipated through lack of drill, which is intended to 
deepen the impression and fasten the lesson in the child's 
mind. " How many of the class understand this ? " asks 
the teacher, and the children raise their hands in confidence 



222 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

and with sincerity. The teacher, perceiving the truth and 
measuring the pupils' knowledge by his own, believes that 
the lesson is comprehended, and therefore concludes that 
he may pass on to a new theme. But every lesson with 
children must be continued long after it seems to be clear. 
Varied methods must be employed, many questions put, 
work repeated. This is drill, and it is by drill that the 
lesson is brought over the threshold of the child's con- 
sciousness into his very life and mental fibre. Unless this 
has been done, the teaching is partially, perhaps wholly, 
lost. In the old-time school, the child had but few sub- 
jects, but he went over these again and again until complete 
mastery was gained. A few things well learned are better 
than many things superficially gone over. This is not to 
be taken as an advocacy of a return to the old-fashioned 
school with its "three R's." Much time was undoubtedly 
wasted on the acquirement of the elementary studies. Let 
the curriculum be broad, but let thoroughness be demanded, 
even though some subjects must be omitted. " Not how 
much, but how well," is a good motto. Frequent, system- 
atic, thorough drill is in harmony with that motto, and the 
teacher should employ it in every subject every day. 

8. Steps of the Recitation The Herbartian school of 

pedagogy lays great stress upon the "formal steps" of the 
recitation. A general presentation of this theory may be 
found helpful in our study of the recitation. The intelli- 
gent teacher will adopt so much of this theory as suits his 
peculiar needs. Originality and spontaneity in a teacher 
are of far greater importance than adherence to a machine- 
like formality in performing work, even though the latter 
may be more finished as a production. Every teacher pos- 



THE RECITATION. 



223 



sesses an individuality, and this should be given free scope 
in conducting a recitation. There are, however, certain 
principles involved that every teacher should know and 
apply. Some of these principles are presented in the five 
steps of the recitation, as follows : 

a. Preparation. — Reference is had here, not to the 
preparation which either teacher or pupil has made before 
coming to the class, but to the preparation of the children 
to receive the lesson to be taught. If a farmer were to 
scatter seeds upon hard, sod ground, perchance a few 
grains, if left to themselves, would germinate and come to 
fruitage ; but there would be no crop. The sod must be 
turned by ploughing, and further prepared by harrowing ; 
and then the husbandman may sow the seed, and leave it 
to sunshine, and rain, and changing season to produce an 
abundant harvest. So the teacher must not aimlessly 
scatter the seeds of knowledge without preparing the pu- 
pils' minds to receive them, else much of his labor will be 
in vain. The child is prepared for the new by bringing 
forward the old which is already his possession. By skil- 
ful questions the teacher will discover what the children 
already know concerning the material of the proposed les- 
son. The teacher reaches backward, as it were, grasps the 
old, brings it forward, and introduces the new to it. The 
less strange the new is, the easier the child will apperceive. 
To grasp isolated knowledge is difficult. Therefore the 
instructor seeks to remove as far as may be the strange- 
ness of the new material by introducing the related old 
material. Without this preparation, to understand the les- 
son will be difficult ; much that is sought will be missed : 
hence the necessity of this first step of the recitation. 

b. Presentation. — When the soil is prepared the seed 



224 ^ ^^^ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

may be sown. We have shown earher in this chapter that 
not only must the pupils recite, but also the teacher must 
instruct. No recitation should be donducted without a 
large measure of instruction. There are many methods of 
presenting the new material, such as lecturing or telling, 
drawing out by skilful questioning, or by examining what 
the pupil has obtained from his own use of text-books. 
The method may be analytic or synthetic, inductive or de- 
ductive, according to the maturity of the children and to 
the nature of the subject. Or it may be any or all of 
these methods wisely employed to meet different types of 
mind, and so as to keep up the interest. The presentation 
must be clear, logical in arrangement, explicit, and it must 
be repeated a sufficient number of times to be clearly un- 
derstood and fixed in the minds of the members of the 
class. 

c. Association. — Time and again the teacher must 
bring the new into such relation to the old that the two 
become thoroughly assimilated and familiar. Once more, 
the teacher must be sure that the new knowledge is not 
merely a stranger knocking at the door, but an acquaint- 
ance, a friend who has been brought over the threshold of 
the child's consciousness. The new material must be 
thoroughly associated with what the child already pos- 
sessed. This is done by repetition, by variety in methods 
and devices employed, by illustration, and by careful ques- 
tioning until the teacher is satisfied that the end has been 
accomplished. 

d. Recapitulation. — No lesson has been well learned 
until the pupil can restate the whole theme in a summary, 
a rule, or a recapitulation. The ability to recall the outline 
of a lecture or a sermon indicates the clearness with which 



THE RECITATION. 



225 



it has been grasped. Children should be trained to this 
power by being required to state the principal points that 
have been brought out in a lesson. Many object to pupils 
committing a rule to memory. This objection is the result 
of a practice formerly much more in vogue, whereby the 
pupils began the study of a subject by committing to 
memory definitions and rules. When the falsity of that 
method came to be understood, teachers went to the other 
extreme, practically reasoning, " The rule should not be 
learned before the child understands it, hence it should 
never be learned." This reasoning is fallacious. In gen- 
eral the truth of the premise may be accepted, but the 
conclusion is false. Take, for illustration, an example in 
arithmetic. Let the pupil learn how to work it ; then let 
him explain how he did it ; then, after solving many prob- 
lems, let him tell in his own language how all problems of 
that kind are solved, making a rule of his own, as it were ; 
and finally, let him commit to m'femory a concisely worded, 
plain, and accurate rule. To prepare a comprehensive and 
correct rule is no easy task, and no child can be expected 
to do it. It requires the closest thought of a well-equipped 
and experienced mind, and it can be done only after con- 
centrated and long-continued study. It is idle, therefore, 
to expect a child to be able to prepare a rule that will stand 
the test of a close analysis. 

A practice similar to that suggested for arithmetic 
should be employed with grammar, history, and other sub- 
jects. Either a rule or a summary which embraces the prin- 
cipal points of the topic covered should complete the study 
of a subject. The knowledge of the child will thus be 
reduced to a series of norms that are stored away in his 
memory, that he understands, and that he can recall when 



2 26 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

authoritative standards are needed. To omit recapitula- 
tion is to fail to gather the points of the lesson and to fix 
them in the mind against future usei. He is safer in his 
ethical life who is governed by fixed moral precepts ; he is 
surer in his language who knows the rules of grammar ; 
he is better equipped in mathematics who, understanding 
the operations, is familiar with the rules governing those 
operations ; he is more certain of his facts of history who 
possesses summaries of the events of a period or of a peo- 
ple. Therefore, emphasis should be laid upon recapitula- 
tion after a theme has been worked out. To rehearse the 
salient features of a lesson is a most valuable and essential 
educational practice. 

e. Application. — The final step is to apply the knowl- 
edge gained to the duties of every-day life. The child is 
too apt to think of the school as another world than that in 
which he lives when out of school. School life should come 
into close touch with the verities of every-day life. Themes 
treated in the school should find their practical application 
in the home, in the vocation, and in the social relations. 
Illustration is unnecessary to make this point clear. The 
paving of a street, the construction of a house, the plant- 
ing or reaping of a crop, the dealing with the grocer, will 
present abundant examples in arithmetic ; the presence of a 
creek in the neighborhood, or of a mountain, or a town, can 
be utilized in work in geography ; letter-writing, description, 
or composition affords practical application for language- 
work ; and the possible proximity of a battle-ground, or 
the scene of some important event, will supply material 
for illustrating work in history. Thus the cultural and the 
practical may be brought into complete harmony, and the 
school will not fail in its duty towards either. 



THE RECITATION. 227 

The elaborate plan outlined in these five steps can 
seldom be carried out in a single period ; but the teacher 
has before him the logical order suggested by them, and he 
will proceed from day to day systematically and steadily 
until the subject is mastered in its completeness as thus 
outlined. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SPECIALIZATION. 

There is a tendency with some educators in recent 
years to advocate an extreme of specialization which 
amounts to individuahsm. I believe that when La Salle 
conceived the idea of grading together pupils of about 
the same stage of advancement, and instructing them 
simultaneously, he performed a great service to education. 
" The educational crime of this age," says Superintendent 
Greenwood, ^'is too early and too much specialization. 
Broad, deep scholarship first ; later, specialize." Great 
thinkers from the time of Sturm until the present 
have devoted much thought to the formation of courses 
of study that will produce an all-round development and 
training of the pupil. These courses of study have been 
improved upon from time to time to keep pace with the 
progress of knowledge, to meet the varying demands of 
different nations and different periods, and more nearly 
to satisfy the progressive ideals of education. A course 
of study so formed, embodying the best thought and ripe 
experience of many competent teachers for so long a 
period, surely should be a safe guide for an immature 
child. Add to this the presence of a wise and competent 
teacher, capable of interpreting the meaning and value of 
education, and it follows that a better choice of studies 
will be made than the child, subject to his own volitions 
and whims, can make for himself. 

228 



SPECIALIZATION. 



229 



Need of General Culture. — Too early specialization has 
a tendency to arrest a liberal and proper development, and 
to take from the child the opportunity of *' obtaining a right 
and broad outlook upon life by too early depriving him of 
educational guidance." The purpose of specialization is to 
afford an opportunity for each individual to develop his 
natural abilities so as to prepare him for the greatest possi- 
ble usefulness, and to open the way to the enjoyment of 
life in its largest measure. It must be admitted that 
there is a great difference in the natural tendencies of 
children. Just how far these peculiarities should be 
humored is a difficult problem. No one would desire to 
(it a "round boy into a square hole," and doubtless many 
of the failures in life are due to such attempts. It may 
be hard to determine what a child's natural bent really is. 
Most children pass through various epochs in life, in each 
of which there seems to be a marked inclination to some 
particular field of study or enterprise. Professor Miinster- 
berg relates his own experience in illustration of this point. 
At one period it may be a "craze" for bugs or butterflies, 
and one feels sure that the child will become a naturalist ; 
at another period he is interested in electricity or chem- 
istry, arid he is mkitked dut for a scientist ; again, he 
is interested in drawing and sketching, and''*1:he future 
artist in embryo is detected. To discover the causes of these 
changes in the child's attitude towards various subjects 
may not be difficult. His changing views of life at various 
times may be due to his psychological unfolding, to his 
environment, to his playmates, and more than all to his 
teacher. A popular teacher, enthusiastic over a particular 
branch, will invariably win pupils to love it, and likewise 
to become ardent in pursuing it. It therefore does not fol- 



"S. /-•,. 



230 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

low that an inclination towards a particular field at some 
period of the child's life proves that this is a permanent 
interest. Only time and careful study of the child can 
decide so important a matter. 

On the other hand, a child may possess undiscovered 
tendencies that have never been aroused. Generally, no 
harm will be occasioned if they are not awakened until a 
broad foundation of general culture has been laid. It may 
even be asserted that if the development of these tendencies 
is thus delayed, greater ultimate good will be done to the 
child. With the foundation of general education first laid, 
the growth in special and individual aptitudes will be more 
rapid, more permanent, and more sure. 

A child of four years showed such remarkable talent for 
music that he was employed by a piano firm at the Chicago 
Exposition to assist in giving daily concerts. The bright, 
beautiful child, with his great skill and unusual talent, 
attracted large crowds around the booth whenever he 
played. After Paderewski had heard him play, the great 
master took the boy in his arms and said, *' My boy, thank 
God first of all for your wonderful talent ; and next, thank 
Him for the friend He has raised up to teach you." When 
the boy was six years of age, this friend earnestly advised 
that he be sent to school. Unfortunately, the parents 
refused to heed this advice, thinking that as the boy had 
a genius for music, this was all-sufficient. He thus became 
a specialist at a very early age, thereby ignoring the claims 
of general development. The result has been that even in 
his specialty he has failed to achieve the success that his 
early years promised. Even genius cannot take the place 
of solid work and broad culture. The genius who lacks 
general education is apt to be one-sided, self-opinionated, 



SPECIALIZATION. ^3 1 

egotistical, ungenerous, and unappreciative of the talents of 
others in his own field. He is wanting in the equilibrium, 
the stability, the common sense, that characterize the 
well-trained person. 

As to the culture needed to secure an all-round develop- 
ment, opinions differ. I present, for comparison, three 
outlines by different leaders : 

Dr. William T. Harris's scheme : 

I. Language studies as the centre. 

. 2. Arithmetic. 

3. Geography. 

4. History. 

5. Other branches. 

Dr. Charles A. McMurry's scheme : 

f a. Subject-matter of biography. 

1. History. J ^- ^^^^°^y- 

^ I c. Story. 

L d. Other parts of literature. 

2. Science. 

r a. Grammar. 

3. The formal w b. Writing. 

studies. c. Arithmetic. 

. d. Symbols used in reading. 

Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler's scheme : 

1. Science. 

2. Literature. 

3. Esthetic. 

4. Institutional. 

5. Religious. 

All thoughtful educators recognize the necessity of gen- 
eral culture before specialization, not only for the purpose 
of bringing out all of the powers of the individual, but also 
as a preparation for his special work. As to the time 
when specialization should begin, or the amount of previous 



232 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

culture necessary, there is a variety of opinions. In gen- 
eral, it may be said that every person, whatever his special 
calling, should possess sufficient culture to lead him to 
appreciate other fields than his own ; to prompt him to 
respect other men's vocations and opinions ; to give him a 
general outlook upon universal knowledge. Such a train- 
ing should prevent his vision being narrowed by the horizon 
of his own specialty. The equivalent of a full high-school 
course is the least that may be expected to fulfil these 
requirements. 

Advantages of Specialization. — i. Better teaching. — 
The teacher who is a specialist in any branch has an 
opportunity to know his subject far better than the person 
who must teach several subjects. To know the literature 
of a single branch requires constant application and dili- 
gence. The bibliography of education for the year 1901 
shows 319 books and articles on education in English 
alone, while the annual output of pedagogical publications 
in German is about 3,500 works. The activity in other 
fields of learning is correspondingly great. It thus be- 
comes impossible for any man to keep pace with his own 
specialty ; even more difficult for him to be expert in 
several subjects. 

The specialist, devoting his strength to his own field, 
narrowing his scope to the peculiar methods of that branch, 
alert to everything new that appears therein, and repeat- 
edly presenting the same material, must become eminently 
proficient. His subject is, in no improper sense, his 
hobby. From the standpoint of knowledge to be gained, 
of enthusiasm for the study, of opportunity to obtain the 
best and the newest, it is a great thing to be under the 



SPECIALIZATION. 



'33 



teaching of a specialist. Every student should have that 
opportunity at some period in his career. 

2. Concentratiofi of study. — He who is ready to be 
taught by a specialist should have practically decided upon 
his life-work. He is prepared to abandon other fields and 
concentrate his attention upon the one subject, or that and 
other subjects closely related to it. To illustrate this point, 
the student who enters a German university without having 
definitely decided to limit his study to a certain field is likely 
to waste his time. Many courses are offered by professors 
of great renown. At first he is tempted to hear the cele- 
brated men without regard to a definite plan for the 
future. He is apt to matriculate for two or three times 
as many lectures as he can profitably hear. Until he settles 
down to some definite course, and rigidly adheres to that 
regardless of other attractions, his work is desultory and 
unsatisfactory. If he is not ready thus to concentrate 
his energy, he is not ready to specialize. Specialization 
offers peculiar inducements to concentrated study. 

3. Greater thoroughness. — It is better to know a few 
things well than to have a smattering of many things. 
Specialization enables the student to obtain a thorough 
mastery of a few things. The men who have been of the 
greatest service to the world in science, art, philosophy, 
religion, have been men of singleness of purpose, who have 
become masters of some one chosen field. It is in accord 
with this idea that the Carnegie Institute at Washington 
devotes large sums of money for the support and encour- 
agement of specialists and investigators. It may have 
been possible for an Aristotle in the fourth century, B.C., 
to have '' possessed a universality of knowledge," but that 
is impossible for any man in the twentieth century, a.d. 



234 A NE^ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

4. Better appliances. — When a teacher can devote him- 
self to one field, he soon gathers about him rich materials 
— apparatus, books, specimens, collections — that would 
be impossible were his energies divided. He will construct, 
buy, obtain gifts, collect specimens, until his department 
has the needed material for illustrating his work. This 
adds to the effectiveness of his teaching, and makes work 
with him desirable and doubly profitable to the student. 

Specialization Below the High School. — Notwithstanding 
the value of specialization as an educational practice, I 
think it has but little place in the grammar school, for the 
following reasons : 

1. The children have not yet gained the required gen- 
eral culture, as pointed out in the preceding pages. 

2. Few children have chosen their life-work or are pre- 
pared to choose it, and therefore they are unable wisely to 
select their own studies. We have seen that even marked 
tendencies in certain directions are no absolute proof of 
permanent choice. 

3. The most important feature of school-work at this 
period is the formation of character, which should be well 
established before the close of the grammar-school course. 
Now, the specialist who comes into a room to teach geogra- 
phy is naturally intent upon bringing forward his pupils in 
that subject. His efficiency as a teacher is determined by 
the progress of the class in geography. Being proficient 
and enthusiastic in that study, he will doubtless give better 
instruction than the grade teacher can give. The end of 
education to him with that class is a knowledge of geogra- 
phy. The specialists in reading, arithmetic, language, etc., 
have a like purpose for their respective subjects. Each 



SPECIALIZATION. 



'^3S 



will seek to secure a maximum of efficiency in his own 
branch regardless of any other work. It will be admitted 
at once that in teaching the subjects the grade teacher 
cannot be expected to accomplish as much as the special- 
ist. But is there not something at this period in the 
child's life that is of even far greater account than the 
gaining of knowledge 1 

Then, too, the discipline of the grade teacher is likely 
to be more effective and permanent. He governs, not for 
the time being, but for lasting results ; he seeks to teach 
the child self-control ; he endeavors to inculcate the prin- 
ciple of self-government. Being with the pupils during 
all of the school hours, he can study their peculiarities, 
shape their habits, form their characters. No specialist 
can come into such close contact with the whole life of a 
class of children, meeting them, perhaps, only once a day, 
as the grade teacher can who is with them the whole time. 

The teaching, moreover, is likely to be more evenly 
balanced, since the grade teacher is able to strengthen a 
child that is weak in one subject, and perhaps strong in 
another, by allowing him to devote more time to the one 
and less to the other. The teacher views the whole work 
of the child, and gives him aid where he most needs it. 
Thus, the grade teacher should be able to secure an all-sided 
interest and a harmonious development. Again, there are 
days when special demands with respect to a certain sub- 
ject are made upon a class. When such extra work is re- 
quired, the grade teacher, having all the work in charge, is 
able to lighten other work correspondingly. Specialists do 
not know the requirements in the other departments, and 
therefore it often happens that unusual demands may be 
made by several teachers upon the same day, thereby over- 



236 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

whelming the pupils with heavy burdens. Hence it seems 
clear that it is unwise to resort to specialization during the 
period of life when the child is unable to guide himself 
and when character is forming, that is, during the grammar- 
school period. The importance of this end of education, 
the formation of character, would be a sufficient reason for 
this course even if the former argument for general culture 
before specialization were ignored. 

It may be necessary to make exception to the above 
general principle in the teaching of music, drawing, and 
manual training, subjects that as yet can hardly be required 
in the qualifications of all grade teachers. 

The Group Plan. — The importance of the personal in- 
fluence of the teacher is so thoroughly recognized in some 
quarters, that instead of specializing in the elementary 
work, quite the opposite extreme has been adopted. Thus, 
when a class is promoted, the teacher moves up with it 
each year for, perhaps, three or four years, after which 
she returns to the beginning and starts with another 
group. This enables a teacher, having his pupils for so 
long a period, to make a stronger impression upon them, as 
well as to adopt a broader plan for their training, than is 
possible where classes change teachers every year. It is 
also a good thing for the teacher, who will thereby escape 
the danger of falhng into ruts through doing the same 
work year after year. As the group covers only three or 
four years, it does not take him too far away from his 
chosen field of activity as a primary, an intermediate, or a 
grammar school teacher. The third-grade teacher surely 
will readily adapt himself to the methods and the subjects 
of the second or the fourth grade. 



SPECIALIZATION. 



-37 



By this plan the strong personaUty of the teacher will 
have time to make a permanent impression upon the pupils, 
such as is impossible under specialization or under the 
plan which keeps the teacher in the same grade year after 
year. Formerly teachers' salaries were graded solely ac- 
cording to the position held, those in the primary grades 
being lowest. If this were still the practice, the teacher 
would object to returning to begin with a new group ; 
but fortunately most teachers are now remunerated ac- 
cording to their efhciency and to their experience, with 
little regard to the grade they teach. 

" But what if the teacher's personality is undesirable } " 
asks one. No ideal scheme of education can consider such 
teachers. It is our duty to aim high ; and if a teacher's 
personality and power over children are such as to defeat 
the aim, and prevent the attainment of the ideals, he must 
be removed. Our theory includes only good teachers, 
and we shall secure them when it becomes clear that no 
others will be accepted. To take poor teachers into ac- 
count in a philosophy of education is to be content with 
the present and expect no further progress. Well-pre- 
pared, skilled, enthusiastic teachers are the first essential of 
any school system, and without these all plans are vain. 

Specialization in the High School. — When the child 
passes into the high school, the problem begins to assume 
a different aspect. He is more capable of self-guidance, 
his character is pretty well established, and the personal 
influence of the teacher is not so vital to him. At the 
same time, the subjects being more advanced, there is 
greater reason for specialization. The high-school studies 
make greater demands upon the teacher, and practically 



238 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

necessitate his being a specialist. But it does not follow 
that the pupils should elect their work upon entering the 
high school. They have not yet the broad, general cul- 
ture which has been shown to be essential, nor are 
they wise enough to choose what is best for them. In 
making their choice, the personality of a teacher, the 
difficulty of a subject, the traditions handed down from 
the older students, and personal taste, may enter. Surely 
the students of education, the thinkers, the eminent teach- 
ers, who for centuries have been constructing courses 
of study, and have transmitted to us the accumulated 
results of their research and study, are more capable 
of deciding such a question than a fifteen-year-old boy or 
girl. 

Hence, while the teachers of the high school may be 
specialists, and thus able to offer superior instruction, the 
choice of subjects and the arrangement of courses should 
not be left to the pupils. In colleges the tendency is to re- 
quire the students to take a specified course the first year, 
until they are familiar with their new environment, and 
until they are more settled as to their chosen career ; in 
each of the succeeding years there is an increasing amount 
of elective work until the senior year, when the student 
practically chooses all of his work. In the university 
proper, where students are definitely preparing for a pro- 
fession, they are allowed to devote all of their time to spe- 
cial lines of work and investigation. 

A sound educational policy, then, would seem to require 
that there shall be no specialization in the elementary 
school, very little in the high school, a gradually increased 
amount in the college classes, and only in the university 
obtain throughout the entire course. 



SPECIALIZATION. 



239 



Different High-School Courses Most high schools offer 

a classical, a scientific, an English, and a commercial course. 
These may be modified so as to combine two or more 
courses, but this nomenclature is sufficiently comprehen- 
sive. The choice of course is also an important matter. 
Children, as we have said, should not be allowed the 
decision of this question. They are too immature and too 
uncertain as to their future vocation to act with wisdom 
and judgment. They are apt to choose what they believe 
to be the easiest course or the most popular one. The 
persons most competent to advise them are their grammar- 
school teachers, who know their pupils' capacity and their 
aptitudes, and are acquainted with their limitations. They 
know, also, the advantages and requirements of the high- 
school courses. Hence, every child that goes up from the 
grammar to the high school should be armed with the 
advice and guidance of his former teachers. They have 
time to consider well what is best for each pupil, whereas 
the high-school faculty must necessarily decide hastily 
when large numbers are being admitted. Parents also 
should be consulted, and their intentions as to the future 
of their children taken into account. If the child is to go 
to college, prepare for business Ox' for the general purposes 
of life, the appropriate high-school course should be se- 
lected. If, indeed, the high school is to be the "people's 
college," beyond which the student is not to go, obviously 
the course should be, as far as may be, the one that is 
Vcomplete in itself, rather than one that contemplates fur- 
ther study. The possibilities of a change of plan at the 
completion of the high-school course, whereby a college or 
other subsequent training may be entered upon, should not 
be lost sight of. It often occurs, after the high school is 



240 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

completed and the student finds himself prepared to enter 
a higher institution, that he will obtain means to enable 
him to take advantage of an opportunity which had seemed 
beyond his reach. For there are so many ways of helping 
worthy students to help themselves, that practically none 
need be excluded from the advantages of higher education. 
In a word, each student should go up to the high school 
with the advice of his former teachers ; and this advice 
should be based upon a knowledge of the individual, upon 
his tastes and abilities, and upon his purposes as derived 
from consultation with him and his parents. Counsel 
should be sought also of the high-school faculty. Thus, it 
may be anticipated that fewer mistakes will be made than 
if the child be left to his own immature judgment, and he 
will be furnished with such training as his time, his abil- 
ity, and the means at command, make possible for him. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 

I. To His Pupils. — The school is for the children, and 
the teacher's first thought should be for them. During 
the hours that the pupils are in school^ at least, the teacher 
stands in the place of the parent, and often for many 
hours out of school. Their health should be guarded with 
intelligent care. The danger from wet feet, damp clothing, 
and draughts must be understood, and means taken to 
prevent disaster. The bad effects of improper and un- 
wholesome food should be taught, and the nature of suit- 
able clothing explained. While the teacher may be unable 
to correct the evils of bad food and improper clothing, it 
must be his duty to call attention to them, and instruct the 
children as to what is right. The effect of such instruc- 
tion may not be immediately apparent, but it cannot fail 
to do good if wisely conducted and persistently given. I 
once heard a teacher in Leipsic giving instruction in hy- 
giene to a class of first-year pupils, — boys between six 
and seven years old. The special theme was bread, and 
he taught that no bread should be eaten until it is twenty- 
four hours old. As a result of this kind of teaching for 
many years, the German people rarely eat warm, fresh 
^^^bread, and as a consequence they are much less liable to 
indigestion. Instruction of this kind would ultimately 
have a great and salutary effect upon the health of the 
people at large, and would greatly reduce the number of 

241 



242 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

cases of dyspepsia and kindred diseases. With regard, 
also, to the use of alcohoUc beverages, proper instruction 
is the best means of checking the evils of intemperance. 
If the teacher is "the high priest of the future," in no 
better way can he serve his country than by teaching the 
children what they shall eat and what they shall drink. 

The teacher should be familiar with the symptoms of 
diseases common to children, such as diphtheria, measles, 
mumps, scarlet fever, etc. A dull eye, a flushed face, a 
headache, a sore throat, a fever, are indications of serious 
disorder, and the child exhibiting any of these signs should 
be promptly removed from the school. It is better to 
make a mistake in removing a child believed to be affected 
with a contagious disease than to expose a whole school to 
danger. When a contagion breaks out among the pupils, 
the teacher should be familiar with the means to be em- 
ployed thoroughly to disinfect the school, even though a 
representative of the board of health be at hand, or the 
community employ a school physician. He should also 
be alert to discover defects in eyesight or hearing, and 
prompt to inform and interest the parents so that relief 
may be afforded. Prejudices as to wearing spectacles are 
to be overcome. I once noticed a boy holding his book 
very close to his face, and upon examination found him to 
be extremely near-sighted. I saw his parents and told 
them that he should have glasses at once, but they objected 
on the ground that he was only twelve years old. When, 
however, they were prevailed upon to have his eyes exam- 
ined and suitable glasses supplied, a whole world that had 
been in darkness to him was revealed through the enlarge- 
ment of his horizon. 

The importance of the intellectual and moral well-being 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



243 



of the child is more fully appreciated than heretofore. It 
has been treated elsewhere (see p. 19), and therefore a 
further discussion of the teacher's duty with reference to 
these sides of educational development will not be needed 
here. The training of the intellect has always had a large 
place in school-work, and in recent times moral training is 
receiving more attention. It is the teacher's duty to aim 
to secure a well-balanced development of all the powers of 
the child; — "the hand, the head, the heart," as Professor 
Stoy puts it, must be included in the all-round education 
of the all-round man. 

2. To the Parents. — While the teacher for quite a part 
of the day stands in the place of the parents, this can 
never absolve them from their duty to their children. 
Children are " the gift of God " to the home, and parents 
are their natural educators. If the demands of civiliza- 
tion have caused a division of labor, thereby making the 
school a necessity, nevertheless the responsibility of parents 
in the education of their offspring can never cease. This 
is a natural duty belonging to parenthood, which W. J. 
Long shows is not shirked by lower animals in the care and 
bringing up of their young. It is the duty of the teacher 
to keep in close touch with the parents, to inform them of 
the progress or the serious misconduct of their children, 
and of all other matters of vital interest to them. In 
these things there should be perfect frankness. While in 
charge^of a young ladies' boarding-school the importance 
of this was forcibly brought home to me. A young lady 
had been guilty of a serious offence, and I told her its 
repetition would be followed by expulsion, and that I 
purposed notifying her father of the facts. She pleaded 



244 ^ ^^^ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

with me not to bring this sorrow upon him, promising 
most solemnly that the offence would never be repeated. 
I finally yielded to her importunity, and did not notify 
her father. It was not many weeks before she was 
again guilty of the offence, and I suspended her at once 
and notified her father. When I saw him he asked me, 
" Why didn't you notify me ? I might have saved her and 
myself this disgrace had you done so." The co-operation 
of parents should be invited by frankly taking them into 
full confidence in all important matters. Surely no one 
should be more interested in the welfare of the children 
than their own parents. Through periodical reports par- 
ents should be informed of the work and deportment of 
their children, and, when necessary, these should befol- 
lowed up with personal explanations. 

Parents' meethigs. — One of the best means of reaching 
the parents is through public meetings held regularly. In 
these meetings teachers and parents come together to 
discuss their mutual interests and the good of the school. 
There are many such organizations that are doing incalcu- 
lable good. I have in mind one which holds monthly 
meetings at which practically the whole school community 
— children, parents, teachers — gather. Lectures on 
school subjects are given, recitations and other exercises 
by the children are offered, and other entertainment 
furnished. It affords an opportunity to present work of 
the school when parents are in a most happy and sym- 
pathetic frame of mind, and the teacher is thus enabled to 
bring matters to their attention which it would be difficult 
to do under other circumstances. The policy of the school 
may be made known, co-operation invited, and friction 
avoided. Then, this organization can be utilized to seek 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 245 

out and care for needy children, who may be kept from 
school by lack of clothing or for some other reason. 
Thus the whole community becomes interested in the 
success of the school and in keeping children regularly 
there. Besides this, it has the effect of making the school 
and the teachers popular. Every school should have such 
an organization. Besides, the interest awakened for the 
school and its work, together with the cordial relation that 
it fosters between teachers and parents, and the increased 
interest taken by the pupils through knowing that the 
whole community is proud of their school and is sustain- 
ing it, are means of enlightening and instructing the 
parents themselveSo Lectures on educational themes and 
discussions of school matters set them to thinking of 
questions that are quite new to them. The definite state- 
ments by the teacher of matters that concern the school 
and their children, furnish them needed information, and 
prepare them to understand new measures that may be 
proposed, and prevent them from antagonizing honest efforts 
that may be made to improve the school. If the teacher 
can get the ear of the parents he will have little difficulty in 
carrying forward any reasonable measure of improvement, 
and the best way to do this is through the parents' 
meetings. 

3. To the Community. — What has been said in regard 
to parents' meetings might well have been said under this 
head.^ xjt^is certain that if these meetings are inaugurated 
and sustained with enthusiasm, the teacher will not be 
negligent of the duties which I am about to point out. 
But many schools do not have this important auxiliary, and 
therefore it may be profitable to consider the teacher's 



246 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

duty to the community in its general bearing. While the 
teacher may say, " I am employed to teach the school, and 
my time is my own when the school day is done," such a 
view is very narrow. It would also be very disastrous to 
his highest success, especially in a small community. True 
enough, the school is the teacher's first duty, and he must 
not let society or outside interests, not even church work, 
however meritorious that may be, so exhaust his strength 
or monopolize his time as to cripple him for school duties. 
On the other hand, he must not draw himself into a shell 
of exclusiveness, nor must he ignore the claims of society, 
even on the plea of absorption in school-work. Such work 
will be easier and more congenial if sustained by the interest 
of the people, and, at the same time, it will be far more 
effective. 

Some years ago I became very much interested in a 
young man, a graduate of one of our best colleges, who had 
taken his first position as principal of a village school hav- 
ing six or seven teachers. He was a fine, scholarly young 
fellow, in earnest as to his work, and an excellent teacher. 
In conversation with me he said : " I am devoting all my 
strength to my school. At the close of the day, after tak- 
ing necessary exercise, I go to my room and shut myself 
up. I seldom go to church, and never go out into society. 
I make no acquaintances and want none. They are not 
the kind of people I care to associate with." I suggested 
to him that they were the parents of his pupils, and that 
they supported the school. " Well," said he, " I give them 
a good school, and that is all they can ask of me." It was 
in vain that I tried to convince him that he was making a 
mistake, and that he owed the community something besides 
his school-work. He had to learn his lesson in his own 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



247 



way, and he learned it before the close of his first year. 
He wrote me as follows : " I have made a mistake in not 
heeding your advice. I have been asked to resign at the 
close of the year. I have every reason to believe that my 
work in the school has been satisfactory, but I have no 
friends in the community, no one to say a good word for 
me, for no one knows me or has the slightest interest in 
me. My exclusiveness is bearing its fruit — I've got to 

go-" 

Quite different is the case of another principal in the 

same vicinity. There is scarcely an interest in the village — 
social, moral, religious, or even business matters — with 
which he is not identified. His advice is sought, his opinion 
respected, his aid solicited, in all matters connected with 
the life of the community, and there is no man in that 
village who is more beloved and honored. He has been in 
the same school for over thirty years. Nor has his school 
suffered on account of his outside activity. It has been 
strengthened and made efficient thereby, because he has 
won the confidence of his people through his interest in the 
affairs of the town, and they believe in and support him in 
his educational work. He is a citizen as well as a school- 
master, and his people admire him because he is both. 

The teacher owes it to the community to show proper 
respect for sacred things. There are but few parents of 
whatever religious creed, or of none, who do not feel safer 
if the instructor of their children is a man who reverences 
God and- shows respect for His commandments. The 
sabbath should be kept, church attended — the church of 
his choice, no matter which ; and a proper regard for pub- 
lic sentiment as to temperance and other moral questions 
shown. There is no doubt that the great majority of people 



248 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in our American communities reverence religion and its 
ordinances, and live according to an ethical code. Hence 
the teacher who stands before the people as an example, 
and whose moral influence, as we have seen, is great, owes it 
to the community to conduct his life in agreement with the 
requirements of public sentiment. Of course, this does not 
mean that he should practise hypocrisy ; it has been insisted 
elsewhere that the teacher must be genuine (p. 4) ; but a 
young teacher may still be in doubt upon some questions, 
and, in such cases, he should defer to the common feeling. 
If he is imbued with atheistic doctrine, or has loose notions 
of morals, he has no business to be a school-teacher. A 
popular young principal had become somewhat unsettled in 
his religious views, and was disposed to talk about the mat- 
ter quite freely among his pupils and about the village. 
The people were aroused, and the young man found him- 
self under severe criticism. I suggested to him that if he 
could not believe as most orthodox people do, he should, at 
least, be silent, and not destroy foundations that were held 
sound by most of the community. I told him that I thought 
he owed this to them, and he took my view of it. The 
people did not object to his exercising the right of indi- 
vidual opinion, but they did object to his teaching their 
children, either in or out of school, opinions concerning 
which even he was still in doubt. 

4. To the School Board. — The members of the school 
board are naturally the friends of the teacher. They have 
selected him, and his success is a proof of their good judg- 
ment and wisdom. The teacher should do nothing to 
alienate the school board, either by ignoring them, or by 
showing lack of respect. They are the chosen representa- 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 249 

tives of the people, and, as such, should be respected 
regardless of personal characteristics, regardless of social 
or intellectual qualities. A State superintendent of schools 
was called upon by a friend to adjust a difference between 
him and his board. After meeting the board, the superin- 
tendent returned to his friend and said : " You have been 
indiscreet in your remarks about members of the school 
board, and they are deeply offended. You will have to go. 
I can do nothing with them." " But I have merely told 
the truth," said the young man ; " they are numskulls, and 
everybody knows it." "That may be," replied his friend, 
** but you ought not to have said so. There is nothing left 
for you but to resign." 

I have said that the school trustee is the natural friend 
of the teacher. If he is not held to this relation, it will be 
largely the teacher's fault. Keep him informed of the 
workings of the school. Report cases of discipline early 
to him, so that, if complaint comes, he will be forewarned 
and prepared. As an official, he will appreciate such cour- 
tesy, and, nine times out of ten, will be predisposed 
to the teacher's side of the case. Talk freely of the plans 
of the school and get him interested. He stands between 
the teacher and the people, and is desirous of rendering the 
community a service through the instrumentality of the 
teacher. This does not mean that the teacher should be a 
sycophant or surrender his self-respect. " Hello, Bill ! " 
said a man who stuck his head into a superintendent's 
office.^' Has Miss Blank a certificate to teach .? " " No," 
was the reply ; ** she is not able to pass the examination, 
and is not fit to be a teacher." " Never mind about that," 
said the man; "she's a friend of mine, and I'm going to 
give her a position in the schools. You see that she gets 



250 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

a certificate." This man was a member of the school 
board and a poHtical boss. To offend him would mean 
dismissal, and the superintendent had not the courage to 
defy him, and therefore he submitted. There is no call 
for such surrender of manhood as this, and the teacher that 
yields compliance to such demands is unfit for his office. 
The same respect that the teacher renders to the school 
board should in turn be given to him by them. Only 
when the courtesies are from both sides, only when respect 
is mutual, can there be continued cordial relations. 

There are duties that are peculiar to the office of the 
school trustee. These are principally external, and include 
the material side of school administration. The internal 
workings of the school — the discipline, the instruction, the 
training of the pupils, the course of study — are matters 
that belong to the teacher as an educational expert. The 
school board of Quincy, Mass., recognized this relation 
when they called Colonel Parker to their superintendency, 
and their action made them and their schools famous. 
When the school board sustain their teachers by every 
moral and material means at their command, when the 
teachers are competent to conduct the internal affairs of 
the school, and when these two forces work together in 
perfect harmony, it may be expected that the best educa- 
tional results will follow. 

5. To His Profession. — It is the duty of every teacher 
to do what he can to sustain, dignify, and awaken respect 
for his calling. There is need in the teachers' profession 
of more of the spirit of loyalty, the mutual support, the 
fidelity which members of other professions show each 
other. There is a variety of means by which he will 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



51 



dignify the profession to which he belongs. Let us note 
some of these. 

A good preparation. — The teacher owes it to his pro- 
fession to secure a good preparation. If a profession is 
to command respect, its members must recognize its char- 
acter by securing" the very best possible training for its 
duties. Some claim that there is no teaching profession be- 
cause so many of its members have but little professional 
training. Certainly great improvement has been made, 
but there remains much more to be done. Normal schools, 
teachers' colleges, training schools, and pedagogical depart- 
ments in colleges, are teaching more than a hundred thou- 
sand students in the science and art of teaching. School 
boards are demanding higher qualifications in the teachers 
they employ, and the past few years have witnessed great 
improvements in the facilities for giving teachers better 
equipment. Just so far as the teacher recognizes this 
trend, and adapts himself to it, he is aiding the profession. 
The character of the preparation is treated elsewhere (see 
p. 12). Let every teacher encourage this preparation on 
the part of all who contemplate teaching, whether or not 
they have had the advantage of it themselves. 

Support pedagogical literature. — It is imperative for 
the teacher to be conversant with what is going on in the 
world, however good his previous training may have been. 
A fertile means of accompHshing this is by reading edu- 
cational literature, both current and standard. It is easy 
for the teacher to fall into a rut, to become fossilized. The 
daily routine of school-work, the constant appeal to minds 
below his in knowledge, the pressure of manifold duties, 
the depression of school drudgery, — all these have a ten- 
dency to make one neglect to keep abreast of the times. 



25: 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



A failure to do so only accelerates the downward move- 
ment. Aside from the inspiration and help gained from 
reading educational literature, the teacher by supporting 
educational papers encourages the worthy efforts they are 
making to uplift the cause of education. The better sup- 
port these papers receive, the better they can be made. 
Every subscriber thus assists in adding to the usefulness 
of these organs, while he receives greater benefits himself. 
The teacher that ignores the educational journal loses 
sight of the progress in educational affairs, falls out of line 
in all forward movements, becomes narrow in his own ideas 
and methods, and is likely to be self-contained and egotis- 
tical. He therefore owes it to himself as well as to his 
profession to support educational literature. 

Teachers^ associations, — The tendency of the school- 
room, where association is with young children of much 
less knowledge, and where the intellectual contact is with 
immature minds, is to debase the powers of the teacher. 
Besides educational literature, a very important means of 
counteracting these influences is the teachers' association. 
Here the teacher meets his equals, if not his superiors ; 
measures his strength with the strength of those worthy 
to meet him, and here he stands or falls according to his 
ability to cope with a ''foeman worthy of his steel." Here, 
too, he is without authority, meeting his equals, and must 
prove the ground upon which he stands. It is sometimes 
better to go down before superior power and argument 
than never to be called upon to exert one's self to the 
utmost. It is through struggle that ambition is awakened, 
strength gained; and the victory is the sweeter, the tri- 
umph more glorious, the greater the obstacle overcome. 
There is also the mutual help that comes through com- 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



'^SZ 



parison of methods and experiences, discussion of ques- 
tions of discipline, presentation of new discoveries made, 
as well as the inspiration of personal contact with those 
having the same aims. Hence one of the best means for 
the upbuilding of the teacher is the teachers' association 
or club. Many a young man owes his advancement as a 
teacher chiefly to his connection with such organizations. 
In a community where teachers' meetings are well sus- 
tained and efficient, it is evident that a healthful educa- 
tional sentiment obtains. Therefore the teacher who is 
interested, not only in his own personal growth, but also 
in the good of the cause of education, will support teach- 
ers' associations to the best of his ability. 

Professional etiquette. — The same high ideals that law- 
yers, doctors, ministers, and other professional men hold 
and practise towards each other should prevail among teach- 
ers. Professional etiquette should prevent one teacher 
from undermining another teacher's reputation or seek- 
ing to displace him. A young teacher came to me for 
advice concerning a position that she desired. "Miss S. 
is there now, but I have influence and feel sure that 
I can get the place," said she. *^Is Miss S. successful 
and well liked.'"' I asked. "Oh, yes," was the reply; 
"I think she is a good teacher." "Is she desirous of 
leaving.?" I further questioned. "I don't know; I sup- 
pose not," was the hesitating reply. "And she will proba- 
bly be continued in her congenial and successful work if 
you ^40 not interfere .? " I pursued. " Yes, I think she 
will," was the answer. "Then," said I, "my young friend, 
take my advice and leave her there. You cannot afford 
to crowd a teacher out of her place. It would be a mean 
thing to do, and for the sake of your own future, as well 



254 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



as for the sake of our profession, I do not want you to 
interfere. Never cause a fellow teacher to be displaced 
on your account." She took my advice, and afterward 
secured a much better position, which she held for years. 

Quite different was the experience of a young man, a 
former pupil, who also came to me for advice. He wanted 
my support in securing a school at a neighboring village. 
The position was worth eight hundred dollars, and the 
people were abundantly able to pay that amount. They 
had but one trustee, and he was a man noted for his 
penuriousness. The present teacher had been re-engaged 
at the old salary by the former trustee, but unfortunately 
no written contract had been made. The incumbent trus- 
tee had ignored the existing contract, and offered my 
young friend the position at four hundred and fifty dol- 
lars. This was quite an advance over what he had been 
receiving in country schools, and he was disposed to ac- 
cept. I advised him very strongly to have nothing to do 
with the matter ; that it was dishonorable towards a fellow 
teacher, and unjust to the profession because of the need- 
less lowering of the salary the place could pay ; that it 
showed a lack of professional courtesy ; that it was under- 
mining a good man ; that no good could come from such 
ignoble work. It was all in vain, and, contrary to my 
advice and without my help, he took the place at four 
hundred and fifty dollars. In less than half a year he was 
ignominiously discharged, the trustee paying the full year's 
salary to get rid of him. This ended the career as a 
teacher of a young man of great promise. He never 
sought to secure another school. 

Quite a different spirit was shown by Professor Verrill 
(see page 5), who first asked the incumbent if he in- 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



'^SS 



tended to remain before he would enter the hsts ; also by the 
teacher who upon being invited to an important position, 
and finding that the school board were treating their super- 
intendent unjustly, said to them: "Gentlemen, you are 
under obligations to your present superintendent ; I believe 
he has a valid contract with you, and I will not interfere. 
Under the circumstances, I do not care to consider your 
invitation." When teachers take this stand, showing re- 
spect for each other and for their profession — a most just 
and courteous position to take, and one that will pay in 
the end ; when they practise the same professional courte- 
sies toward each other that members of other professions 
practise (no reputable physician will take a case as long as 
it is in the hands of another physician) — better relations 
will be established, better salaries will be received, and 
better schools will result. It will also command the respect 
of the community, add to the character and efficiency of 
teaching, and place the profession on a basis commensurate 
with the labor, intelligence, ability, and devotion involved. 

Often a slight misunderstanding between teacher and 
school board would be removed if there were no outside 
interference. But if other teachers, or agents of teachers' 
bureaus, widen the breach, it may result in the severing of 
relations that have been alike profitable and pleasant to 
both parties. 

6. To His Successor. — When a teacher has decided to 
leave a^hool, and another has been appointed in his stead, 
he can do a great deal to prepare the way for a good recep- 
tion of his successor, by both pupils and patrons. Profes- 
sional etiquette would require him to do this, while his love 
for the pupils from whom he is to part, and whose continued 



2^6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

progress he desires, would lead him to wish success for the 
one who is to take his place. A kindly word spoken will 
do much to win a welcome and open the way for the 
stranger to the hearts of the children. Even weaknesses 
that may be known of work elsewhere should not be pub- 
lished. It does not follow that failure in one place will be 
repeated in a new field. Good teachers sometimes fail 
under certain conditions, and a change of environment 
may afford opportunity to develop strength and prove 
ability to win success. At least let no word be spoken 
that shall hinder him from achieving success in the school 
and with pupils that have become dear. The same cour- 
tesy also is due to the predecessor. A teacher has no 
right to disparage the work done by a former one. No 
permanent advantage will come to a teacher who tries to 
build a reputation on the faults or weaknesses of others. 
Their mistakes should be covered with a mantle of charity, 
and effort made quietly to correct them when discovered. 

A copy of the daily program, and such records as will 
aid in obtaining a mastery of the minutiae of his new duties, 
should be left for the new teacher. In a word, here is an 
excellent opportunity to practise the spirit of the Golden 
Rule : " Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that 
men should do to you, do ye even so to them." This 
should be the professional attitude of the teacher to his 
predecessor and to his successor. 

7. To Himself. — Last of all, there are important duties 
that the teacher owes to himself. We have seen that the 
teacher's life is a life of self-sacrifice, and no one unwilling 
to give himself for others should become a teacher. But 
this does not mean that he is not to take proper care of his 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 



257 



health, conserve his strength, and seek to bring the best 
that the world offers into his own life ; for in the posses- 
sion of these he will be equipped better to serve others 
while he secures blessings to himself. 

TJie teacher's health. — First of all he must care for 
his health. Elsewhere we have remarked concerning the 
physical requirements of those who enter the profession. 
Here we shall consider the necessity of preserving the 
health while engaged in teaching. By securing a suitable 
home, by proper dress, by taking recreation, by guarding 
against disease, the teacher must keep his body, the " tem- 
ple of the Holy Ghost," in perfect order. Only by doing 
this can he possess the cheerful spirit that makes the 
schoolroom a joy and a delight. How often the bad order 
of a day can be traced to a teacher's headache or to his bad 
digestion ! Everything goes wrong, because everything is 
wrong with the teacher's health. There is much in the 
close confinement, the foul air, the deadly routine of the 
schoolroom, that tends to sap the vitality of the strongest 
body. These influences must be counteracted by thor- 
oughly reactionary means when out of school. Hence the 
necessity for the open air, plenty of exercise, and recrea- 
tion. Let the schoolroom, its atmosphere and influence, 
be wholly left behind when the school day is over, and let 
the teacher abandon himself to complete relaxation. Some 
time must be given to study and preparation for the next 
day, but let that be at some fixed hour after the body has 
been reinvigorated. The duties of the morrow must not 
hang like a nightmare over the teacher during every wak- 
ing hour. There are times when he must "take no 
thought for the morrow." 

When out of school the teacher should throw off the 



258 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

pedagogue. He must not "talk school," "think school," 
or "act school." There is no reason why the mark of the 
school-teacher should be upon a person after a few years in 
the schoolroom ; nor does this mark add to the dignity of 
the profession or of the individual who bears it. It does 
not win respect for his vocation, and sometimes it becomes 
offensive. The air of authority, the self-assertiveness, the 
precision, the disposition to set the world right, which may 
be necessary and natural in the schoolroom, has no place in 
the outside world. " Can't you make those boys behave 
themselves ? " was asked of a teacher at a public gathering. 
" I suppose so," he replied, "but why should I ? " "Why, 
you're their teacher," said the other in astonishment. " No, 
I am not their teacher. I am merely a member of this 
party, bound to enjoy myself like the rest, and with the 
same freedom. I am not on police duty, and have no more 
authority over those boys here than you have, and you 
may be sure I shall not attempt to use authority that I do 
not possess," was the quiet reply. A citizen with other 
citizens, a man with other men, no more, no less, should be 
the attitude of the teacher ; and any police duty that he may 
do outside of the school should be that which any man might 
do under extraordinary circumstances. Then the hard 
lines that so often appear on the countenance, the "bossy " 
manner, the hypercritical disposition, will characterize the 
teacher no more than they characterize any other person. 

Good food, proper clothing, plenty of outdoor exercise, 
freedom from restraint, good society, will not only preserve 
the health of the teacher, but will fill him with sunshine 
when he comes to his school, give him soundness of mind 
as well as of body, implant in him beauty of spirit that 
makes him everywhere welcome, and fills life for him with 



DUTY OF THE TEACHER. 259 

gladness and joy. It certainly is the duty of the teacher 
to cultivate these qualities. 

The teacher s growth. — It is not sufficient to be a 
graduate of a normal school or college, to hold a first-grade 
certificate, or to stand high in the profession of teaching. 
The teacher must grow, and this advancement must be 
along lines both professional and general. There must 
be a knowledge of educational movements and a familiarity 
with the progress in educational thought and research. 
To obtain this, we have seen that pedagogical literature 
must be read, contact with others in teachers' meetings 
sought, and the work of other teachers and schools studied. 
Rapid strides are being made in all departments of educa- 
tional enterprise, and the teacher who keeps pace with the 
times is obliged to be instant in season and out of season. 
This does not mean that one must run after every " fad," 
or ride a hobby. It does mean, however, that new ideas and 
schemes will be examined with a view to adopt those that 
are sound, and that the teacher will hold himself open 
to conviction. Who shall say what are "fads " and what 
are sound theories without examination and experiment } 
Drawing, school music, manual training, the kindergarten, 
object-teaching, have all been denominated "fads." The 
privilege of experiment is one of the most valuable 
features of the American schools, and its wise use is a 
guarantee against conservatism and stagnation. Through 
experiment and investigation new methods are discovered 
and proved, new theories advanced, mooted questions 
solved, pedagogical practice tested, and educational vitality 
preserved. The zeal with which teachers take up new ideas 
and test them is one of the most hopeful features of edu_ 
cational work. It is true that much that is worthless is 



26o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

promulgated, but some good is discovered, and this is 
preserved while the worthless is soon discarded. Activity- 
is better than stagnation ; groping for the truth is better 
than self-satisfied indifference ; life is better than death. 
And so let the teacher hold himself ready for the truth 
wherever discovered, and let him also be an earnest 
searcher and investigator in his own professional field. 

But no teacher should confine his growth to purely pro- 
fessional lines. He must also know what is going on in the 
world of literature, science, art, history, politics, and religion. 
Every teacher should follow a course of reading outside 
of the field of pedagogy. This will help him to escape 
the pedantic spirit and manner so often characteristic of 
the teacher and which I have already considered. It will 
help him to be a man among men, to be genial and interest- 
ing in society, and to view life from a broader standpoint. 
Besides this, it will add to his efficiency in the school- 
room, and enable him to bring to his pupils stores of 
knowledge and riches not called for in the curriculum nor 
specified in the text-books, but which are more effective 
than either in opening to the children's minds the great 
things of life. 

Thus, while the teacher grows into nobler proportions 
as a man endowed by God ; while he improves himself 
and grows more and more into the image of his Maker ; 
while he enjoys the blessings of quickened intelligence, 
accumulated knowledge, and increased power in his own 
personal life, — he will also be an inspiration to his pupils 
to lead them into broader fields and nobler life. Then 
will he fulfil the noblest of all missions to which man is 
called, that of the teacher. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF SUPERINTENDENT, 
PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 

It is not my purpose to discuss the educational qualifica- 
tions of either the superintendent or the principal, the 
qualifications of the teacher having already been treated in 
Chapters I. and II. It may be said in general that both 
of these officers have usually begun their educational work 
as teachers and have advanced to their more responsible 
positions after years of successful experience. It is also 
likely that their promotion has been due to their remark- 
able efficiency as teachers. When such is the case, it is a 
most happy situation, for they will understand the multi- 
farious duties of their own office, and furthermore they 
will be in closer sympathy with the teachers under them 
from having experienced like trials and difficulties. The 
superintendent who has not passed through this school of 
experience is sadly handicapped. He is likely to be a 
mere theorist, whose schemes are not always based upon 
sound practice. 

I. The Superintendent. — There are two kinds of duties 
expected of the school superintendent, namely, executive 
acts and supervisory work. Let us consider these separately. 

I. Executive Duties. — The superintendent must 
write reports, form plans, make out courses of study, act 
as a representative of the board of education, hear com- 

261 



262 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

plaints and suggestions from the parents, represent the 
teachers, and assume the educational leadership of the 
community. To be able to do these duties requires not 
only broad scholarship, tact, knowledge of men, pedagogical 
knowledge and skill, but also good executive ability. The 
school superintendent must be a man in whom the school 
board, the teachers, and the community have confidence. 
He must be resourceful, energetic, and enthusiastic on the 
one hand, and yet conservative, judicial, far-seeing, and 
wise on the other hand. This is the business side of his 
qualifications and his duty. There is a tendency in some 
cities to separate the business from the purely educational 
work, the supervisory ; that is, to have a business director 
to attend to many of the above duties, and a supervisor 
for the pedagogical work. This may be done in large cities 
that can afford the double expense, and it is a wise and 
economical provision, but it can hardly become general in 
smaller towns. Therefore we must consider a superinten- 
dent who combines the qualities of an executive and those 
of an educational expert. 

The successful general does not lead his army into 
action, but he plans the battle, selects his division leaders, 
and directs the whole fight. The great leader is he that is 
able to marshal all his forces under the command of sub- 
ordinates wisely chosen, each to perform, with the forces 
placed at his disposal, the duty that is assigned to him. 
This principle is true of every great enterprise of war or 
peace, of commercial, philanthropic, or educational endeavor. 
Hence the wise superintendent will unite, for the attain- 
ment of his purposes, all available forces — the board of 
education for the business side, and the teachers for the 
educational work. 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 26^ 

Upon him jointly with the school board will fall the duty 
of selecting the teachers. This duty should not devolve 
upon either of these agencies alone. The members of the 
school board are not educational experts, are not frequently 
in the schools, and may not be free from local prejudices for 
or against the teachers. Through his examinations, by his 
constant intercourse with the teachers and observation of 
their influence and work, and by his freedom from bias, 
the superintendent is certainly better informed as to which 
of the old teachers should be retained or reappointed. By 
his knowledge of men, by his professional training, by his 
acquaintance with the standards of teaching, he is better 
fitted to choose new teachers than the school board is. His 
recommendations, therefore, should carry great weight 
with the school board in making appointments. Through 
frequent reports during the year as to cases of inefficiency 
among the teachers, the superintendent can keep the board 
well informed, so that they can act intelligently when the 
time of appointment comes. Reappointment every year 
should not be practised except in case of teachers who are 
on probation. With a suitable probation of perhaps three 
years the ranks of permanent teachers will be suitably 
guarded. 

In the matter of the course of study the aid of the 
teachers should be invoked. While the superintendent 
in his view of the whole field, and with his broad knowledge 
as an educational expert, must necessarily provide the gen- 
eral plan of the course, the details of it should be worked 
out by the teachers. It should be discussed in teachers' 
meetings and submitted to the experiment of the classroom 
before final adoption. The superintendent views it as a 
whole, while the teachers examine and test its parts in their 



264 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

individual work. By this means an educational instrument 
may be produced that is sound as a whole and in perfect 
harmony as to its parts. A course of study that is prepared 
by the superintendent in his office and adopted by the 
school board without the co-operation of the class teachers 
will be likely to awaken the antagonism of the latter. The 
teachers also have an interest in the successful training of 
their pupils, a closer and more direct interest than the 
superintendent can possibly have. They, too, are educa- 
tors whose opinions are worth having because of their 
personal contact with the children, and because upon them 
is incumbent the duty of carrying out the course. The 
wise superintendent will utilize all of the forces at his 
command for the best good of the schools under his direc- 
tion, and will not attempt alone to carry burdens that others 
can assist him in carrying. 

2. The Superintendent as a Supervisor. — So long 
as the executive and the supervising work of the superinten- 
dent devolve upon one man, the duties of supervision should 
be held as of the greater importance. It is not my pur- 
pose to mark out definitely the functions of these two 
departments, should two officers be employed. In general, 
one will perform the external, executive duties, and the 
other the internal, the purely educational work. The course 
of study, the relationship with the teachers, conferences 
with parents, representing the schools at educational meet- 
ings, naturally belong to the field of supervision. A super- 
intendent who confines his activity to his ofiice, who fails to 
keep in touch with the actual work of the schoolroom by 
frequent visits, will lose sight of his most important func- 
tion. He will be out of sympathy with his teachers, with his 
pupils, and with genuine and practical educational activities. 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 26^ 

a. His visits to the schools. — The superintendent visits 
a school not as a stranger or guest, but as a part of the 
institution. His visits should not be looked forward to 
with dread by either teacher or pupils. They should 
understand that he comes as a friend who sincerely desires 
to do all parties good, and not as a critic who is look- 
ing for defects. If he questions the classes, it will not be 
for the sake of exposing their ignorance, but to instruct, 
to help, to uncover some phase of the subject that may 
have escaped the teacher. I have brought out elsewhere 
(p, 1 79) that the purpose of the recitation is not to show 
how little the pupils know, but to discover how much they 
have learned and to teach them something new. Weak- 
nesses will appear, it is true, and it will be found that many 
things have not yet been mastered by all of the class. 
This will be the case also with the best and most experi- 
enced teachers under the most favorable circumstances. 
Nevertheless, emphasis must be laid upon the positive 
rather than the negative side, upon finding out what the 
pupils know rather than what they do not know. It is 
evident, of course, that what the pupils do not know will 
be thus exposed, and attention must be directed to the cor- 
rection of defects. 

If the superintendent questions the class, he should bear 
in mind the above principle. He should encourage and 
stimulate rather than frighten and discourage. He should 
suggest new interests, fortify the work already done, and 
present the subject in a new light to the class. This will 
be done, not to prove that the teacher has failed, but rather 
to strengthen her influence with the class. He will not 
fail to praise the good work. Should he discover poor 
work that calls for criticism, his voice will be silent upon 



266 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

this in the presence of the pupils. The superintendent has 
no right to humihate a teacher by reprimanding her or 
exposing her weaknesses before the pupils. Nor will he 
make notes in his private note-book during his stay in a 
room. I have known men to visit a class, sit silent as a 
sphinx, laboriously jot down what they witness, and then 
leave the room without a word to any one. Teacher and 
pupils think of him merely as a critic, and they wonder what 
terrible things he has put down against them in that book. 
Consequently they dread to see him appear. Under such 
circumstances, neither teacher nor pupils can be at their 
best ; nor can they do themselves justice. If notes of a 
visit are to be made for future reference, let them be 
written after leaving the room. They should be of the 
most private character, intended for the eye of the super- 
intendent alone. They will be valuable to him in compar- 
ing the work of a class from time to time. Before again 
visiting that class he should review his notes in order to 
refresh his memory in regard to the work for the purpose 
of comparison. 

I have said that the teacher should not be criticised 
in the presence of her class. If, however, her work is 
unsatisfactory, she should be invited to a private confer- 
ence at which the defects should be faithfully pointed 
out. The attitude of the superintendent should not be 
that of a critic, but of a friend who is seeking to extend 
a helping hand. Kindly, but firmly and plainly, the 
wrong method, the weak discipline, the lack of enthu- 
siasm, the failure to grasp the essentials of a subject, 
the want of sympathy, or whatever the defect, should be 
pointed out. While such criticism may bring tears, if 
given in the right spirit it will secure the desired result, 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 267 

provided the teacher does not lack the capabiUty of 
success. 

The superintendent who points out the evil fails in his duty 
if he does not suggest a remedy and endeavor to assist the 
teacher in applying it. He tears down, but does not con- 
struct anything upon the ruins. Here is manifest the advan- 
tage that one possesses who himself has had experience in 
a like kind of work. Having met similar difficulties, he is 
able to assist others in overcoming theirs. He is fertile in 
devices and suggestions, from the application of which the 
teacher may be able to correct her errors. 

An old county superintendent told me the follow- 
ing bit of experience : " One day," said he, " I visited 
a country school in charge of a young lady who had 
recently joined my teaching force, and who was a 
stranger to me. I spent the forenoon with her, and as I 
was about to leave, she said to me, * Mr. M., have you 
any suggestions to make ? * * Yes,' I replied, * let me 
suggest that when you desire your pupils to do something 
ask them, and do not commajid them to do it. You order 
your boys to do this or that, and they sullenly comply 
because they fear you. The spirit of your school will be 
very much improved if you will act upon this advice.' 
She was very angry with me, evidently thinking that I 
did not understand boys, especially such as she had to 
deal wdth. I was not sure how matters would turn out. 
This teacher was a good instructor, but there was a total 
lack of sympathy between her and her pupils. There- 
fore I could not call her work a success. Some months 
later I again visited that school. The teacher met me at 
the door and said, * Mr. M,, I want to thank you for the 
advice you gave me on your former visit. I was provoked 



268 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

at your suggestion and had no idea of carrying it out. 
But upon reflection I concluded to try it, and it has worked 
like a charm.' My second visit to the school was a delight, 
and I found the whole atmosphere of the school changed." 
This wise old teacher discovered the fault, and was able to 
suggest a remedy. Every superintendent should possess 
the disposition and the knowledge whereby he can aid 
those whom he is obliged to criticise. 

There are many things that the supervising officer should 
observe in visiting a schoolroom. The discipline, the gen- 
eral order, the spirit of the teacher and the pupils, the 
care of school property, as well as the methods of instruc- 
tion, and the progress in the lessons, should all be taken 
into account. He should not interfere with the discipline, 
as that would weaken the teacher in the eyes of the pupils. 
If there has been insubordination, such as to call for his 
presence in the classroom with the distinct purpose of 
discipline, let that be understood, and let him administer 
such warning and such punishment as the case may 
demand. Even then he should not fail to impress upon 
the children that the teacher is in command, and that he 
proposes to support her in the maintenance of good order. 
It should be rarely necessary for a superintendent to 
interfere in this way in preserving order. It is incumbent 
upon each teacher to hold her class in check, and if she 
ultimately is incapable of doing this, a change will have to 
be made. The details of daily discipline must be carried 
out by the grade teacher, though the pupils should under- 
stand that she has the support and confidence of her 
superintendent. 

Should an offence be committed in the presence of the 
superintendent, it is generally better that the teacher in 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 269 

charge should deal with it. In my first school in a 
country village I received a visit one day from the county 
superintendent. He saw a boy commit some offence, 
caught hold of the culprit, and proceeded to punish him. 
The boy resisted, and a most painful scene ensued. Now, 
I had never had serious trouble with this boy, and believe 
that had this matter been left to me but little trouble 
would have been occasioned. The boy felt that the 
superintendent was interfering beyond his prerogative, and 
therefore resented the punishment. Let the teacher be 
held responsible for the order of the room, and if it is 
unsatisfactory the superintendent should call him to 
account. 

While the violation of general principles of teaching 
may call for criticism, the widest latitude of individual 
method and practice should be allowed the teacher. The 
main thing is that the pupils shall progress in their studies, 
that the discipline shall be wholesome, and that the spirit 
of the school shall be uplifting, healthful, and enthusiastic. 
If the teacher secures these results, the method of proced- 
ure is secondary, and the superintendent should not inter- 
fere unless the means employed are vitally wrong, so that the 
results will not be permanent. Let every teacher have the 
largest possible liberty in teaching and in class management. 
Encourage her to think and act for herself, to be original, 
and let no effort be made to mould all teachers according 
to one pattern. The teacher who servilely tries to imitate 
some one else, no matter how eminent the ideal, will ulti- 
mately fail. *' Mr. A. has succeeded admirably in his way," 
said a young man who had just been appointed to a posi- 
tion. " I cannot follow in his footsteps, but I can succeed 
in my own way." And he has proved his abihty to fulfil 



270 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



expectations by nearly a quarter of a century's service in 
that school. Give the teacher the greatest possible free- 
dom, encourage him to think and act for himself, and let 
him feel that he also, though placed in a subordinate posi- 
tion, may assume responsibility in the education of chil- 
dren. The superintendent who insists upon his teachers 
following his stereotyped methods destroys enthusiasm, 
discourages individual improvement, and reduces his 
schools to a machine-like condition. 

b. Educational leadership. — By his training, his expe- 
rience, his understanding of the educational forces, his 
general view of the whole field, and by virtue of his posi- 
tion, the superintendent is the constituted leader. As 
such, his principals and teachers should give him their 
respect and their hearty and loyal support. By means of 
teachers' meetings, by talks to the whole body of his 
assistants, and by private advice to individual teachers, he 
should establish most cordial relations. He should be able 
to inspire his whole corps of teachers with high ideals be- 
cause he possesses high ideals himself. A principal once 
remarked : " I want my school to be a unit from the kin- 
dergarten to the end of the high school, to have the same 
purpose throughout. Therefore I shall secure all of my 
teachers hereafter from one normal school." I said to 
him, that if he discharged every teacher in his school and 
engaged his whole corps from a single class of that or any 
other normal school, it would not insure the unity he 
sought ; that if he would obtain the end desired, he must 
be the leader who gave the direction, the inspiration, the 
continuity to the work. I further added, that a better plan 
would be to select the best teachers he could get from 
many sources, thereby taking advantage of the newest 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 2? I 

educational movements and ideas in different schools. 
With such teachers, possessing a theory of education, and 
with the ability himself to lead, he would have a right to 
expect the educational unity sought. After reflection he 
admitted the soundness of the advice given, and has since 
acted according to it with excellent results. The superin- 
tendent must possess the qualities of leadership. Without 
these qualities success cannot be expected. 

c. Teachers meetings. — The superintendent should call 
his teachers together regularly for the purpose of consider- 
ing the welfare of the schools. In large systems these 
meetings will necessarily be limited to different classes of 
the teaching force — the associate superintendents, the 
principals, the teachers of various grades and departments. 
The purpose of these meetings will vary according to the 
work of those called together. Teachers' meetings afford 
the superintendent opportunity to give general directions, 
to present policies, to discuss discipline, and to unify the 
whole work. An occasional lecture on some broad educa- 
tional question will serve to keep the teachers in touch 
with their profession. 

Sectional meetings should be held frequently for the 
purpose of considering classroom work, methods of instruc- 
tion, discipline, etc. Model lessons should be presented, 
with children if practicable, which should be criticised and 
discussed. Not only the teachers of a given grade should 
be present, but those of the immediately higher and lower 
grades as well, in order that the work of the different 
grades may be made to articulate. It is a good thing for 
a teacher to study work other than his own. Such meet- 
ings can be made instructive and helpful to all concerned, 
and they should give vitality, inspiration, and harmony to 
the whole teaching force. 



272 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



Teachers' meetings should be so conducted that they 
will not be regarded as a bore, as an evil incident to the 
teacher's life from which all would gladly escape. In the 
first place, they must offer something that the teachers 
want. When teachers find that they can obtain help in 
their work, they will gladly devote an hour a week or a 
fortnight to such an exercise. The great mass of public- 
school teachers are earnest, enthusiastic, and eager to 
improve. 

In the second place, there should be the utmost freedom 
in these meetings. Each teacher should feel that his opin- 
ions will receive a hearing, and that he is invited to express 
himself freely. If only a few take part, and these always 
the same individuals, the meetings will become dull. Su- 
perintendent, principal, and teacher should all stand on the 
same plane on the floor of the teachers' meetings, so far as 
discussion is concerned. The exercise of the courtesy 
due to equals should also be practised, and the youngest 
teacher, as well as the oldest, should feel that his voice 
will be heard whenever he has anything to say. 

Third, they should not be too long. In general, an 
hour is long enough, unless something should arise that is 
of peculiar interest. Too lengthy meetings destroy the 
good effect sought, and make the teachers dread their recur- 
rence. Especially true is this if the meetings are held at 
the close of the school day, when all are already weary 
with the arduous duties of the day. 

Fourth, they should be conducted in a kindly and sym- 
pathetic spirit. There will be differences of opinion, but 
there need be no acrimonious criticism. The expression 
of different views will have a tendency to throw light upon 
the subjects discussed. 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 273 

Fifth, they should be wide awake and enthusiastic. 
When a subject is exhausted, it is better to close the meet- 
ing than to drag out any allotted time. As in the recita- 
tion with children, when interest flags, it is time to close. 

Finally, the teachers must feel that the superintendent 
in the conduct of these meetings is honestly trying to be 
of service to them, that he is studying school problems 
with them, that he is full of sympathy for them, and that 
he has a due appreciation of the arduous duties committed 
to them. 

d. Reports from teachers. — Many of the details of the 
reports which the superintendent is required to make will be 
obtained from the teachers. He will also require reports 
from them to aid him in the work of supervising. The 
superintendent should not forget that he is dealing with 
men and women who are eager to perform their duty, and 
who need no system of espionage over them. His visits to 
their schools, if made in the right spirit, will be welcomed, 
and the reports he requires, if reasonable, will be willingly 
furnished. Too frequent reports, such as might be neces- 
sary with children, should not be demanded. Teachers 
are overburdened with school duties and details which they 
cannot escape, such as correcting papers, reading test ex- 
ercises, examining written work, etc. No needless burden 
should be added by the superintendent. And yet such in- 
formation as may be necessary to a full understanding of 
the progress of the schools and of the work of the teachers 
may be asked of them. The information required will 
differ from time to time, as the superintendent may be 
studying different phases of education, seeking to correct 
an evil, trying experiments, making out a course of study, 
or preparing his annual report. Reasonable requests 



274 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



should be cheerfully and promptly met by the teachers, 
who should enter heartily into the measures that the 
superintendent proposes for the betterment of the schools 
and the promotion of the cause of education. If teachers 
cannot accede to his reasonable requirements, and will not 
follow his leadership, they should resign. 

e. Relation to the parents. — In his supervisory work 
the superintendent will frequently come in contact with 
the parents. Parents should be encouraged to watch the 
progress of their children, and all the officers of the school 
should stand ready, fully and patiently to explain its pur- 
poses to them. Some parents are disposed to find fault 
with modern teaching because the methods employed are 
quite different from those with which they are familiar. 
" Last night I attempted to assist Charles in his examples 
in Least Common Multiple, and found that I could not do 
it because the method is so different from the one I 
learned," said a father. A few words of explanation from 
the teacher removed the irritation which this gentleman 
felt, and prevented further antagonism. 

The superintendent should be approachable, so that par- 
ents will feel perfectly free to consult him in regard to the 
work and conduct of their children. He should be patient 
and cool when they are angry. A quarrel can never take 
place unless there are at least two parties to engage in it. 
The one who controls himself and will not be drawn into 
contention, is the one who comes off victorious. There are 
times, however, when not to resent, to submit to bullying, 
is to lose one's self-respect, and also the respect of the 
antagonist. "My weight is 185 pounds," wrote a pugna- 
cious parent to a principal. The latter wrote on the back 
of the note, "Mine is 210," signed his name, and returned 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 275 

the note to the sender. The argument ended at that 
point. In another mstance, the teacher wrote, " I can 
weigh a ton when it is necessary." 

Although the superintendent may hear complaints from 
parents, he certainly should not condemn the teacher with- 
out a hearing. He will seek to be just to both sides, and 
to do this must hear them both. Knowing the difficulties 
of the teacher's position, and having confidence in his 
teachers, his sympathies will naturally be with them. But 
if a mistake has been made, or a wrong done, the superin- 
tendent must be just. No parent should have reason to 
believe that the superintendent would consent to under- 
mine a subordinate in order to win credit to himself. His 
conduct should be so straightforward, and his assumption 
of responsibility that clearly belongs to him so evident, 
that no one can accuse him of shirking his duty. Mr. 
Huling says in speaking of the principal : " He should sup- 
port the teacher against aggrieved parents, not by telling 
falsehoods in her favor, but by pointing out the embarras- 
sing conditions, the evidences of good purpose towards the 
child, and the child's own share in the blame." I think 
the same remark applies to the superintendent. Every 
parent should have confidence that he is deahng with an 
honest man, who understands his business, and who is 
endeavoring to give the children of the community the 
best that modern methods, advanced educational thought, 
and the means at his command will afford. 

Parents, on their part, should furnish liberal support in 
the way of school supplies, give the superintendent large 
powers as to the conduct of the school system, elect a 
board of education that will support his measures, and 
abstain from carping criticism. They should open their 



276 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

homes and their hearts to him as a social equal, and give 
him their confidence and their loyal support. If he is 
unworthy of all this, he ought not to occupy the responsible 
position of directing the educational affairs of the com- 
munity. If this confidence and this position are accorded 
to him, a great deal will be done towards insuring a suc- 
cessful administration of the schools. 

f. Relatiojt to the children. — No superintendent can 
know all of the children in his schools, but they can know 
him. They should think of him as a friend, and not as an 
autocrat who sits in his office seeking to impose hard tasks 
upon them, or concocting different kinds of punishment. 
A school board of a small town once made a rule that no 
corporal punishment should be inflicted in the schools 
except by the superintendent, thus relegating to him an 
office that the Jesuits deemed fitting for a domestic or 
porter, who was the official disciplinarian and who did all 
the flogging. The exercise of the duties of such an office 
certainly would not tend to win the affection of the pupils, 
and no superintendent should consent to the imposition of 
such a requirement upon him. 

If the pupils have complaints to make, or if they desire 
help or advice, the superintendent should give them a hear- 
ing. But I agree with Mr. Ruling when he says : "The 
principal should support the teacher against opposing 
pupils, not by denying mistakes if they have occurred, but 
by holding the pupil to a consideration of his own mistakes, 
and by a refusal to allow him while contumacious to discuss 
his teacher's acts, or at any time to undertake her disci- 
pline." 

The peculiarities of many pupils will be known to the 
superintendent. It may be that a child possesses marked 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 



77 



ability which will call for early promotion ; or that he is a 
genius in some studies and weak in others, and therefore 
demands special study and treatment. Possibly a child is 
slow of comprehension, and there is doubt as to whether it 
is a case of retarded development, natural dulness, or 
imbecility. Again, the home surroundings may be unfor- 
tunate, and the teacher in her efforts to save the child may 
need just the help that the superintendent can give. Still 
againj it may be an habitual truant, or a vicious child for 
whom radical measures are necessary, — perhaps he must 
be sent to a reformatory. By virtue of his office and 
authority, the superintendent is the proper person to decide 
these questions. There are always a few children in every 
school system whose abnormal characteristics and peculiar 
history are such as to require special treatment, and this 
duty will fall upon the superintendent. In no part of his 
work will greater wisdom and judgment be required than 
in the field just described. He will necessarily second and 
sustain the teacher in her efforts for the good of the chil- 
dren, and both will work in perfect harmony for the ends 
sought. But the superintendent, with his wider experience 
and greater knowledge, will be expected to suggest reme- 
dies for unusual cases, and will naturally watch the result 
of his experiments. 

I have already said that the visits of the superintendent 
should not be dreaded. He will not gain friends by show- 
ing his "power to tease the children by hard and unex- 
pected questions, or by airing his wit to the discomfiture 
of some apparent dullard." By his interest in the whole 
body of pupils and in individuals ; in their lessons and 
their sports ; in their school and their home life ; in their 
troubles and their triumphs ; in their aspirations and 



ayS A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

their life purposes ; in their moral and spiritual as well as 
in their physical and intellectual development — by all of 
these means, he will win the respect and love of his pupils. 
By his genuineness, his manliness, his honesty, his frankness, 
his justice, his sympathy, he will win the admiration of 
the young, and inspire them to emulate his example. A 
superintendent who possesses these characteristics and this 
spirit can do untold good in a community, and his influence, 
like that of Arnold of Rugby, will be an inspiration to 
patriotism, to noble living, and to righteousness. 

II. The Principal. — Much that has been said about the 
superintendent applies equally well to the principal. In 
many communities, the principal is the educational leader. 
His personal character, his ability to lead, his broad view 
of education, should be much the same as is demanded of 
the superintendent. Indeed, there are principals who have 
under their charge a larger number of pupils than superin- 
tendents in small towns. By virtue of having a single 
school under his direction, the principal may come into 
closer touch with his teachers and pupils than is possible 
with the superintendent of a large system. He may know 
all the details of the school-work, be acquainted with the 
strong and weak points of every teacher, and be familiar 
with the peculiarities of each pupil. Therefore he should 
be able to correct evils, to stimulate interest, to direct the 
studies, and to enter into every phase of school life. 

In his teachers* meetings, the principal will be able to 
study the questions that directly affect his school. His 
school board should accord him great liberty in the man- 
agement of his school, and he should be allowed to suggest 
improvements and work out his own educational theories. 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 279 

Of course, if he is under a superintendent, the principal's 
schemes should not be out of harmony with those of his 
superior officer. Although the schools of a system will all 
follow the same general policy, each school will have an 
individuality, and will exhibit certain elements of strength, 
and thus be able to contribute to the total knowledge of 
educational practice. To secure this end, the principal, as 
the leader of his school, should be allowed considerable 
independence of action. Dr. Bertram, superintendent of 
the schools of Berlin, after visiting many schools in this 
country, points out the right of experimentation as one of 
the most hopeful features of the American schools. The 
freedom of the teachers in this respect is in strong contrast 
with the ironclad regulations which every German teacher 
must follow. 

While the superintendent will inaugurate plans of 
research and experimentation for the whole system, to 
each principal should be left the privilege of carrying out 
the details in his own school. There is no reason for pro- 
hibiting a principal from instituting special investigations 
with the consent of those higher in authority. Hobbies, 
however, are not to be ridden to the detriment of the gen- 
eral work. The science of education has made great prog- 
ress in recent years, but the field is broad, new problems 
are ever appearing, and their solution is to be sought in the 
schoolroom as well as at the theorist's desk. 

The principal's relation to his teachers should be cor- 
dial, just, honest, and frank. Mr. Ruling expresses this 
thought so admirably that I again quote from him. He 
remarks : " Indeed, what I wish to plead for is a mutual 
sympathy as well as courtesy between principal and assist- 
ant, which shall display itself in the external relations 



!28o A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

simply because it is a constant resident of the heart. 
There are burdens enough for all teachers to bear, which 
are not of their own making. Let us add no more to 
them by an unwise attitude toward our fellow-workers. 
Suspicion, doubt, jealousy, mistrust, hostility, — these 
make a chilly and dark atmosphere in which to cultivate 
the flowers of mental excellence and moral worth. It is 
in the summer meadows amid the free oxygen of sympa- 
thy and loving fellowship that such blossoms bourgeon into 
loveliness ; and we all have more to do with the creation 
of the atmosphere of our schoolrooms than we sometimes 
acknowledge." 

If the superintendent in his infrequent visits to the 
schoolroom is to guard against making his visits unwel- 
come, how much more should the principal be careful to 
avoid awakening distrust or fear in the minds of the 
teacher and pupils ! He should bring sunshine and 
helpfulness and good cheer into the classroom. There 
should be nothing disquieting in his manner ; and if he 
chooses to take part in the recitation, it should not be for 
the purpose of exposing the ignorance of the pupils or 
exhibiting his own superior wisdom. His close knowledge 
of the work and of the methods of instruction should en- 
able him occasionally to take the recitation entirely into 
his own hands, letting the teacher observe and rest. His 
presentation of the subject may not be.better than hers, but 
it will be different, and both teacher and pupils should be 
benefited thereby. He should take up the lesson of the 
day, else his coming will be looked forward to as a period 
of relief from the regular tasks, and hence it will become 
a disturbance rather than a help. He may occasionally 
present some outside work when there is a particular topic 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 28 I 

to which he wishes to call attention and to emphasize. 
The principal's work with classes should not be mere 
diversion ; it should strengthen and further the regular 
duties of the class. It would be of great benefit to the 
school, as well as to the principal himself, if he could teach 
some classes regularly ; not too many, however, so as to 
interfere with his duties as supervisor and administrator. 
In many school systems the sole male teacher in the school 
is the principal, in some even the principal is a woman ; 
hence a child may go entirely through the elementary 
schools without receiving instruction from a male teacher. 
This is not a question of the superiority of one sex over 
the other in power of instructing, but of the different atti- 
tude of the two sexes towards discipline, and as to manner 
of presenting a subject. All will agree that every child, 
girl or boy, should at some time come under the instruc- 
tion and discipline, even if only for a brief period, of a 
male teacher. Hence the importance of the male principal 
having the privilege of teaching every class in his school 
at some time or other. 

In matters of discipline the teachers should find in their 
principal a strong support. But when a pupil is referred 
to him, it becomes his case to deal with according to his 
best judgment. No teacher should send a child to the 
principal with the suggestion, "John needs a whipping," 
or, "Jane should be expelled from school." The principal 
is unprejudiced, his temper is unruffled, he is full of re- 
sources. Therefore he must be left to act as he deems 
best ; and when he sends the child back to the classroom, 
it is not the province of the teacher to inquire into the 
punishment inflicted. On the other hand, the principal's 
treatment of cases sent to him should not be of such a 



282 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

trivial nature as to lead the pupil to believe that he does 
not support his assistants in discipline, or that being sent 
to the principal is a mere joke. 

The principal's touch with the school should be so close 
that he will be acquainted with the individual pupils who 
deserve promotion at an irregular time, as well as with 
those who need special help. His examinations or tests, 
together with his personal knowledge and advice, will ma- 
terially aid in determining the list for general promotion. 

Through teachers' and parents' meetings (see p. 244), 
through contact with his pupils in the schoolroom and on 
the playground, through his cordial and manly conduct 
towards his teachers, by his interest in the affairs of the 
community, the principal will unify all of the elements of 
his school district for progressive and enthusiastic educa- 
tional work. 

III. The Teachers. — Little remains to be said as to the 
relation of the teachers to their superior officers. If they 
expect courtesy and consideration from their superinten- 
dent and principal, they should give loyalty and honest 
support to them. When assistants can no longer do this, 
it is their duty to seek another field. This by no means 
would indicate that they should sink their identity and 
become servile and sycophantic in order to curry favor. 
Such a spirit is contrary to the whole purpose of the 
requirements set forth in the foregoing pages. Widest 
liberty has been demanded for the individual teacher. In 
methods of instruction and in discipline, each teacher must 
be allowed to proceed in her own way, and only when 
there is a serious deviation from sound educational practice 
should the teacher be interfered with. When, however, 



SUPERINTENDENT, PRINCIPAL, AND TEACHER. 283 

she commits a manifest error, she should welcome sug- 
gestions from her principal, which are intended to set her 
right and aid her. 

Each teacher is responsible for the order of her room. 
The ability to maintain order is a part of the teacher's 
professional equipment and requirement. She cannot 
evade this responsibility and throw it upon some one else. 
While she has a right to expect the support of her 
principal, and may call upon him for assistance in extreme 
cases, it is a serious mistake for her to send children to 
him for every trivial offence. Such a course is an assump- 
tion that the duty of discipline rests with him alone, and 
it would soon cause a class to lose respect for their teacher. 
Indeed, if too many children are sent to the principal 
from a certain room, an investigation of the teacher is in 
order. With the mutual sympathy between principal 
and teacher, which I have already pointed out as essential, 
each will support the other in every duty and in every 
function of school life. Then the assistant will go to her 
principal when she needs help, and in him she will find a 
wise counsellor and a sincere friend. 

Happy the educational situation in a community when 
superintendent, principal, and teacher mutually understand 
and respect one another; when they work harmoniously 
for the one common object, the good of the children ; when 
they loyally hold together in word and deed, and when each 
unselfishly endeavors to further the intellectual and moral 
well-being of those committed to his or her care. For 
**As the teacher is, so is the school." If all the differ- 
ent ranks of teachers are ideal, the schools will be ideal. 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR.i 

It is not possible within the limits of this book to dis- 
cuss the particulars of either the exterior or the interior of 
the school. Great progress has been made in recent years 
in school architecture. Ventilation, lighting, heating, and 
seating have been studied by experts, and much that adds 
to the health and comfort of the pupils has been learned. 
Besides this, the utility of the school buildings has been 
greatly enhanced. Many of the problems of ventilation, 
heating, etc., however, are not yet fully solved, and doubt- 
less further improvements are destined to be made. 

Only general principles can be here presented. The 
suggestions made are designed to aid the young teacher in 
obtaining a knowledge of the subject in case his advice 
should be asked, and also to furnish him with intelligent 
reasons for correcting the evils that may exist. It often 
occurs that teachers drift along under adverse conditions 
which might be corrected or improved at small expense if 

1 My reason for presenting this chapter and the one following, on the 
School Interior, is that a knowledge of the themes concerning which they 
treat belongs to the teacher's equipment in the particular field of School 
Management. Of course, the reader will find a much fuller and better dis- 
cussion of these subjects in works devoted exclusively to them. But the 
young teacher does not possess many books, and he may have none bear- 
ing on school hygiene at hand. Hence the brief treatment here. I have 
drawn freely from the work on School Hygiene by my life-long friend, 
Dr. Edward R. Shaw, lately called to his reward. Not long before his 

284 



THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR. 



5 



the teacher, alive to the evils, is able intelligently to 
present the situation to his school board, and to suggest a 
remedy (see p. 30). ^ Very often an evil is allowed to exist 
unchecked because the teacher, as well as the school board, 
is ignorant of hygienic laws, and of the principles govern- 
ing the arrangement of schoolrooms. It is the teacher's 
duty to be acquainted with these laws, and to urge the 
abatement of evils. 

To his care are committed perhaps half a hundred 
children for a number of hours a day. He is the profes- 
sional expert in charge of the school, and he must lead the 
board of education and the people to provide the best 
accommodations obtainable. While ignorance on the part 
of the patrons of the school may be pardonable, it is inex- 
cusable in the teacher. Where the teacher knows his 
ground, presents his case, and makes reasonable requests, 
he will be pretty sure to have the latter granted. If, how- 
ever, he fail to attain his purpose, the responsibility will 
rest not upon him but upon others who refuse or neglect 
to perform their duty. 

I. The School-grounds. — The environment of the child 
has an important bearing upon his education. Professor 

untimely death, I consulted with him upon the topics here treated, and 
obtained his permission to make use of his extended studies upon the sub- 
ject of school hygiene. I wish, therefore, to claim no originality in the 
material of these two chapters, but to give Dr. Shaw due credit for his 
investigations, some of which are placed before my readers. The improve- 
ments in school architecture are so frequent and so constant that one can 
scarcely refer to a standard work upon the subject that is not out of date. 
The latest and best treatise is that of Dr. Shaw, entitled " School Hy- 
giene." I commend this work most heartily. The student of the subject 
will need to acquaint himself with the most recent treatment of school archi- 
tecture that may appear from time to time. 



286 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Bailey says : '* One's training for the work of life is begun 
in the home and fostered in the school. This training is 
the result of a direct and conscious effort on the part of 
the parent and the teacher, combined with the indirect 
result of the surroundings in which the child is placed. 
The surroundings are more potent than we think ; and 
they are usually neglected. It is probable that the antipa- 
thy to farm-life is formed before the child is able to reason 
on the subject. An attractive playground will do more 
than a profitable wheat-crop to keep the child on the farm. 
Bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest, — these are the facts 
about the average rural school-ground." 

a. New school-grounds?- — The choice of school-grounds 
is a very important matter. In the city the cost of the site, 
the location, the securing of suificient space so as to be 
unhampered by neighboring buildings, and to furnish play- 
grounds, are elements which make the selection of new 
grounds a difficult problem. In rural districts where land 
is cheap, and where there is plenty of room, an ideal loca- 
tion can be chosen. If a new building is to be erected, an 
architect should be employed at the outset. He will be 
able to give professional advice both as to the choice of 
site and as to the architecture of the building, thereby 
preventing mistakes being made, and probably saving ex- 
pense to the district. It is a mistaken economy to forego 
the services of an architect on account of his fee. If he is 
competent and honest, he will save the taxpayers several 
times the amount of his fee, besides erecting a building 
with the latest improvements and conveniences. 

A convenient and accessible location should be chosen 
where the ground is dry, and, if possible, somewhat elevated. 

1 See Shaw's " School Hygiene," p. 58. 



THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR. 287 

Fully half an acre, preferably an acre, should be secured 
for a rural school. The size of the grounds in the coun- 
try may be determined by the probable number of children 
to attend the school. If there are not more than twenty 
or thirty pupils, half an acre of ground should suffice. If 
there are more than thirty children, or if the number is 
likely to increase, a full acre should be secured. This 
will afford plenty of room so that the building can be 
placed back from the street, allowing a good-sized front 
yard, and still leaving room for the playground in the 
rear. With the space thus afforded, it may reasonably 
be expected that the children will not be allowed to play 
in the street or trespass upon neighboring fields. It is 
a mistake to purchase too limited space for the location 
of a new school, especially in the country where land is 
cheap. 

One often sees the rural school, like the pest-house, 
situated far from any other human habitation, isolated and 
forlorn. I could never see any good reason for this ; in- 
deed, there are good reasons for the rural schoolhouse being 
located near a farmhouse. Accidents may occur whereby 
help should be summoned at the earliest moment. Not 
long since a boy, through over-exertion in a ball-game at 
school, fell in a deadly swoon or a fit. A doctor was im- 
mediately called, and relief was obtained. Had the school 
been isolated, as many of our rural schools are, the teacher 
would have been helpless, and the result might have been 
fatal. Then, too, the school should not be considered as 
a nuisance that is to be pushed as far out of the way as 
possible. It should have a warm place in the hearts of the 
people, and be their pride and their joy. Hence it should 
be located near some residence, and there is no reason 



288 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

why it should be an annoyance to any one if the teacher 
exercises proper control. 

The selection of dry grounds is mdst essential. It is 
the duty of the school authorities to guard well the health 
of the children while they are in school. This cannot be 
done if the school is located in a swampy, malarial neigh- 
borhood where the grounds cannot be properly drained. 
It is of greater importance that the site chosen be dry and 
near some house than that it be located in the centre of 
the district. 

b. Improvement of old grounds. — The erection of a new 
school building in the rural district is so rare an occur- 
rence that the teacher's advice upon this question will 
scarcely ever be needed. I have urged that the teacher 
be equipped with proper understanding of this subject, not 
so much because his knowledge will often be called into 
requisition, — though if it should be sought he should not 
be found wanting, — but for professional reasons, as a part 
of his scientific knowledge. If all the teachers are thor- 
oughly familiar with the laws of hygiene and the best 
means of applying them in the erection and maintenance 
of school buildings, the ideals of the whole community upon 
these matters will ultimately be raised. 

Even if advice concerning a new school is seldom needed, 
every teacher in the country or in the village will have 
abundant occasion to employ his knowledge and skill in 
improving the environment of his school. The forlorn 
condition of many of our rural school-grounds is a shame 
to the teacher and the community, and a sin against the 
children. The founding and general observance of Arbor 
Pay has worked most excellent results in improving school- 
grounds. Trees and shrubbery have been set out, the 



THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR. 289 

grounds have been graded, sodded, and beautified, and 
pride in the appearance of the school premises has been 
awakened. Besides this, the pupils as well as the parents 
have learned some most valuable lessons in the care of 
plants. The offering of prizes in some States for the best 
kept school-grounds has awakened interest in this subject 
and stimulated healthful rivalry between schools. 

Arbor Day is a suitable time in which to interest pupils 
and parents in beautifying the school-grounds. Trees can 
be planted, shrubbery set out, flower-beds planned, walks 
laid out. If proper interest has been awakened, some 
parents will be found willing to assist for a portion of the 
day at least in performing the more difficult parts of the 
labor. In improving the school-grounds, pride and interest 
will be aroused not only in the beauty of the environ- 
ment, but also in the school itself. Arbor Day exercises 
may thus be made to serve the school and make it popular 
in the community. 

Too often the good work thus begun is not followed by 
intelligent and persistent care-taking. Trees and plants 
must be watered, fertilized, and protected, walks must be 
kept clean, lawns cut, and the whole school-yard kept free 
from litter. Children will gladly assist in this work if they 
have an intelligent and enthusiastic leader. Thus they 
may obtain lessons in plant life, learn to be orderly and 
systematic, acquire a love for the beautiful and harmonious, 
and withal become very proud of their school. The habits 
thus inculcated may be expected to exert a beneficent 
moral influence upon the later life of the children. 

" But I shall remain in this school only this year ; why 
should I trouble myself ? Little can be accomplished in 
one year," reflects the teacher. The evil of too frequent 



290 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



change of teachers is thus again manifest. But even if a 
change is likely to take place, that is no reason for allowing 
matters to drift along in the same inevi|:able rut. What I 
have said elsewhere (see p. 5 1 ) in regard to grading of a 
school, even if the teachers frequently change, is appropriate 
in this connection. Let the work be started on the basis 
of a consistent and permanent improvement, and let a 
description of the purpose in the mind of the originator be 
left in the school-desk for his successor. Each new teacher 
should take up the work and continue it, not failing to 
preserve the results already gained. Thus, in time, the 
" bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest " country-school grounds, 
so common throughout the land, will become a " garden of 
roses," a most attractive and delightful spot, the joy and 
pride of the whole neighborhood. 

Not only will the pupils be attracted to the school, and 
the blessings of a charming environment be bestowed upon 
them, but their aesthetic sense will be cultivated. When 
the school has thus become attractive through the combined 
exertions of pupils and parents under the leadership of the 
teacher, an excellent foundation has been laid towards 
making the school a social centre. The school of the rural 
community is the one common ground upon which all meet 
with perfect equality. It is usually the only institution of 
public interest. Let it be made beautiful exteriorly and 
interiorly ; let the parents be drawn together to make the 
place attractive ; and it should not be difficult to make the 
rural school the pride of the whole community. 

2. The Building.! — Too often the rural school is a box- 
shaped, barn-like structure, uncouth and forlorn in appear- 

1 See Shaw's " School Hygiene," p. 30. . 



THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR. 



291 



ance, and by no means " a thing of beauty." One has 
fittingly described a common type of country schoolhouse as 
having " four walls, a^ floor, and a roof. It is oblong, and has 
windows on both sides to ruin the pupils' eyes, and, inci- 
dentally, to look better from the outside." Great improve- 
ment has been made in the architecture of cottages and 
country homes, and there is no reason why a correspond- 
ing improvement should not take place with school build- 
ings. Some States have wisely enacted that no building 
shall be erected except upon plans that have been approved 
by the department of public instruction. This insures the 
most modern and hygienic structure that the means to 
be devoted to this end will afford. 

Only a few general suggestions can be given here. In 
the city or town, more liberal and intelligent action is likely 
than in the country. I shall therefore direct attention 
particularly to the country school. The building should 
be located back from the street, so as to be free from noise 
and dust. This will also afford space in front for flower- 
beds, shrubbery, and other decorative arrangements. As 
to the position of the building. Dr. Shaw says : " Some 
authorities recommend that the building should stand so 
that the direct rays of the sun may enter as many classrooms 
as possible some time during the hours of sunshine. The 
recommendation is an excellent one, for the sun not only 
imparts cheerfulness, but is Nature's purifier. Direct 
sunlight, it is well known, acts as a disinfectant, arresting 
the spread of infectious diseases." 

Whatever be the position of a one-room school, the 
windows can be placed and the seats arranged so as to 
secure proper light, there being ample space about the 
building to insure no interference with the light. If, for 



292 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

external architectural effect, windows are placed on both 
sides of the building, the light in the room can be con- 
trolled by blinds or shades. f 

No building should be erected without a suitable base- 
ment. A building without a cellar is apt to be damp and 
unhealthful ; besides, the floor cannot be kept warm in the 
winter. Cellar space is valuable for storage purposes, even 
if the heating apparatus should not be located there. The 
expense of a cellar is comparatively little, and the advan- 
tages gained far outweigh the additional cost. 

If there is a large number of children, there should be 
separate entrances for each sex. In small schools one 
entrance will suffice, but in every case there should be 
separate cloak-rooms. The cloak-rooms should have two 
outlets, to admit of pupils moving through them without 
crowding and with expedition. The teacher should be 
able to pass his pupils in and out of the building in the 
shortest possible time and in good order. In schools of , 
several classrooms there should be a cloak-room for each 
sex in connection with each room. Further discussion of 
this topic, as well as other questions connected with the 
building, will be found in the next chapter. 

These are the general principles which should be fol- 
lowed, the details of which must be sought in works on 
school architecture or school hygiene. Dr. Shaw very 
wisely remarks : " We hold that the schoolroom should be 
the unit first to be considered in planning a school building, 
and that the building should be a number of schoolrooms 
properly disposed, and not a whole cut up into school- 
rooms, whose size and arrangement depend upon the size 
and shape of the building. If the hygienic requirements 
of the schoolroom are first clearly and fully understood, 



THE SCHOOL EXTERIOR. 293 

and then firmly held in mind, the building is more likely 
to be considered as the grouping of the number of school- 
rooms required, with halls and other auxiliaries, and is, 
therefore, much more likely to be so planned as to give 
each unit, or schoolroom, what the laws of health demand 
for pupils who are to occupy it." 

3. Out-buildings. — It is better, when possible, to locate 
the water-closets in the school building in close connection 
with the cloak-rooms. They can be better controlled, kept 
cleaner, and will afford less opportunity for indecent acts. 
But where there is no running water in the building, or 
no janitor to take care of dry closets, they must be placed 
outside of the school building. This will doubtless con- 
tinue to be the practice in rural districts. Out-buildings 
should be placed some distance away from the school 
building, should be entirely separate for the sexes, and 
should be screened from public view. A high, close-fitting 
board fence should separate the approaches to the girls' 
and boys' closets. Some States have enacted explicit laws 
upon this subject, and the enforcement of these laws is 
more and more strict each year. There remains, however, 
much to be done in this matter, even in States where the 
statutes are suf^cient. Inexcusable neglect on the part of 
the teacher and the school board permits the continuance 
of conditions that are nothing less than an evil and a 
nuisance. Many of our rural schools are utterly lacking 
in suitable out-buildings and proper screens to their 
approaches. 

Common decency, and respect for the feelings of modesty 
of the children, to say nothing of regard for their morals, 
require a strict compliance with the above suggestions. 



294 ^ ^^W SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Where a deficiency in the arrangement of the out-buildings 
exists, the teacher should call the attention of the board to 
it at once, and not cease to agitate the matter until the 
evil is remedied. The closets should be kept clean, the 
walls preserved from inscriptions, and the strictest surveil- 
lance maintained. I have seen school out-buildings where 
filth abounded, where the walls were covered with obscene 
expressions, and where foulness and indecency appeared 
on every hand. Neither teacher nor janitor paid the 
slightest attention to this part of their domain, or made 
any attempt to secure cleanliness. It is useless to expect 
high moral standards in a school that permits such a state 
of things, no matter what may be done inside of the school 
building. Such evils will counteract a great deal of moral 
instruction, and render ineffective ethical lectures. 

What is demanded of the teacher is knowledge of proper 
conditions, wisdom in interesting the school authorities to 
carry out reforms, and enthusiasm in promoting and secur- 
ing the best hygienic school environment. The teacher 
that secures these results is not only an educator, but also 
a benefactor to the community. 



CHAPTER XXL 

THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 

The arrangement of the interior of the school is of 
greater moment even than that of the exterior. The 
amount of space provided, the Ughting and heating, the 
seating, the ventilation, are matters of vital interest to the 
teacher. The health and comfort of the pupils, as well as 
the efficiency of the school-work, will depend almost en- 
tirely upon the internal conveniences. If it is necessary 
that the teacher shall be informed as to the school exte- 
rior, it is even more necessary that he shall understand the 
proper conditions for the interior. Architects, and even 
school boards, are likely to give their chief attention to 
the architectural effect of the exterior. Hence the greater 
need of the teacher being familiar with the requirements 
of the interior of the school. When a building is to be 
constructed, the teacher should watch the plans of the 
interior, in order to secure the conveniences and hygienic 
arrangements required for good school-work. He must 
not forget that perhaps fifty human beings will spend five 
or six hours a day in the schoolroom, and that he is largely 
responsible for their well-being. The immaturity and help- 
lessness of these children only add to the gravity of the 
responsibility. If it is essential that the teacher should 
be familiar with the external requirements of the school, 
he should be an expert as to the interior. He should know 

295 



0^96 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

just what is needed and why a thing is needed. With this 
knowledge he will be able to prevent mistakes in the con- 
struction, and secure the very best that the appropriation 
will permit. 

A knowledge of the school interior is important also in 
considering an old building when no construction of a new 
one is contemplated. Changes to meet hygienic require- 
ments may be made at small expense. Ignorance on the 
part of the teacher and indifference from the school board 
are often responsible for the continuance of evils that are 
most disastrous to the health of the children, and a hin- 
drance to efficient work. It is the duty of the teacher to 
lay before his board actual evil conditions and the remedy 
therefor. Few school boards will hesitate to correct seri- 
ous evils when these are made known to them. The prin- 
cipal of a boarding-school, who had just been placed in 
charge, became convinced that there was sewer-gas in the 
building. He called the attention of the board of trustees 
to the matter without avail. They told him that his prede- 
cessor had pronounced the building in perfect condition. 
This did not convince him ; the evil became too apparent. 
After vainly seeking relief from the authorities over him, 
he took the responsibility to call in a plumber to make an 
examination. Feeling the value of the health and lives 
of the students committed to his care, he could not remain 
inactive, even though he jeopardized his position. A sad 
condition of things was laid bare. The open pipes leading 
to the sewer were found to be without traps ; abandoned 
cesspools were discovered in the cellar, having been cov- 
ered over with a coat of cement without being cleaned ; old 
sewer-pipes reeking with filth were unearthed under the 
cellar, and the whole place was found to be in a most dan- 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 297 

gerous state. When the discoveries were made, the teacher 
called in the president of the board and showed him the 
situation. The responsibility was at once assumed by that 
gentleman, and the plumbing was put in thorough repair. 
School boards will be found ready to act when convinced 
of the existence of an evil, and it is the business of the 
teacher to call their attention to faulty construction and 
unsanitary conditions. Too much emphasis cannot be laid 
upon the importance of knowledge of hygiene on the part 
of the teacher. 

Size and Shape of the Schoolroom.^ — The best authori- 
ties demand at least 1 5 square feet of floor-space and 200 
cubic feet of air-space for each pupil. These requirements 
will be met if the room is 30 feet long, 25 feet wide, and 
13 feet high, with not more than 48 pupils. Better 
acoustic properties will be secured in a room oblong in 
shape — a matter of considerable importance to the teacher 
in the use of his voice, and to the pupils in hearing. In a 
rural school where the number of pupils is likely to be less 
than 48, the room may be smaller, but should be con- 
structed on the same general plan and in the same propor- 
tions. It is a mistake to build too small, as the first cost 
will not be relatively much greater, while an abundance of 
room conserves the health of the pupils and increases the 
effectiveness of the school-work. Especially important is 
this in a growing community where additional room may 
soon be required. Better ventilation can be secured, 
better order preserved, and better work done, if there is 
plenty of room. On the other hand, the building should 
not be too large unless there is a probability of an increase 

1 See Shaw's " School Hygiene," p. 2. 



298 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in the number of pupils, for the expense of heating and 
maintenance will be needlessly increased. The building 
should be substantially constructed, so as not soon to need 
repairs, and so as to be safe and warm. 

Seating. — All authorities agree that the seats should 
be so arranged as to bring the light from the left side 
and from the rear. Most of the light should come from 
the left, that from the rear being utilized only when the 
side light is insufficient. The obvious reason for receiving 
the light chiefly from the left is that shadows of the hand 
are avoided, most pupils sitting with the right side to the 
desk and writing with the right hand, thus securing free 
light upon their work, without shadows. The seats should 
be placed as close as possible to the windows, thus securing 
the best light and leaving space for blackboard work and 
schoolroom movements, as well as tables for the primary 
classes, upon the side remotest from the windows. Single 
desks should be used both for disciplinary and for hygienic 
reasons. Better order can be maintained when each pupil 
is provided with a desk. Both the desk and the chair 
should be capable of adjustment to suit the height of each 
individual child. ^ 

For adjusting the desk and chair, Shaw gives the follow- 
ing excellent rules : — 

" Rules for adjusting desks and seats — the chair. — 
The upper surface of the seat should be as high above the 
floor as the child's leg is long, measured from the sole of 
the foot to the under side of the thigh near the knee-joint, 
when the thigh and lower leg are bent at right angles. A 

1 Dr. Shaw thinks that the Heusinger desk best meets all requirements. 
For description of this desk, see his " School Hygiene," p. 150. 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 



299 



measuring-rod is furnished by some makers of school 
furniture. ... It consists of a square rod on which there 
is a scale of inches. The square rod is fitted with a 
sliding arm, having two branches projecting at right angles 
on opposite sides of the rod, but with one branch of 
the arm below the other a distance equal to the thickness 
of the chair-bottom. The pupil is seated with the foot 
pressing fully upon the floor and the lower leg vertical. 
The upper branch of the projecting arm is placed under 
the thigh near the knee-joint, and this distance read off 
on the scale. The number of inches may then be written 
on a piece of paper and left on the desk fastened under the 
ink-well cover, for the janitor to adjust the chair to this 
height. The chair-bottom may then be raised or lowered, 
and rested on the lower branch of the projecting arm . . . 
and quickly secured by the nut on the chair-standard. 

" The hip-rest. — The hip-rest must be adjusted so that 
it supports the back just above the hips. 

" The desk. — The top of the desk should be raised or 
lowered, as the case may demand, so that the pupil, in 
writing, will not have his shoulders raised in the least, nor 
forced to drop the head and bend the spine forward. For 
desks adjustable for minus distance, the sliding top must 
be drawn down so that it nearly touches the ventral side 
of the body, when the pupil is sitting in correct posture 
after the chair has been properly adjusted. While in this 
position the desk should be raised or lowered, as may be 
required, so that the pupil's forearms will rest easily on the 
top, with the elbows a hand's-breadth from the body and in 
proper position for writing with a desk slope of 15°. With 
this adjustment the pupil will be able to maintain an easy 
and correct posture. His shoulders will not be raised, nor 



300 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



will he be obliged to drop the head or bend the spine 
forward." 

The seats and desks should be adjusted to the size 
of the children, and during the periods of rapid growth 
there should be two adjustments a year. This will involve 
some little expense, as a skilled mechanic is required, but 
the valuable results to be gained make such an outlay 
desirable and wise. 

In an old school building the teacher will have to make 
the best of such desks as he finds. If they are not so 
placed as to secure the best light coming from the right 
direction, an effort should be made to secure a change, as 
we have seen elsewhere. 

Windows, Shades, etc. — Too much attention cannot be 
devoted to the matter of proper light in the schoolroom. 
The general consensus of opinion is that the amount of 
glass surface in the windows should be from one-sixth to 
one-fourth of the floor-space of the room. The best light 
is obtained from the upper part of the windows, therefore 
they should be carried to a point as near to the ceiling as 
possible. Here is apparent the need of high ceilings, 13 
feet at least, as heretofore required. The window-sills 
should be from 3! to 4 feet from the floor, thus being above 
the level of the eyes of the pupils when seated at their 
desks, and not reflecting the light from the tops of the 
desks. The windows should be as close together as possi- 
ble to prevent shadows, and they should all be placed on 
one side of the room only, provided sufficient light can be 
obtained. Should the light from one side be insufficient, 
there may be windows at the rear, the light from which 
can be utilized on dark days or whenever necessary. 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 



301 



Light should never be admitted from both sides of the 
room. Should the architect place windows on both sides 
for the sake of architectural effect, either blinds or heavy 
shades must be employed to exclude the light from the 
right side of the pupils' desks. 

Opaque shades will be necessary also, upon windows 
through which light is admitted, so as to control the amount 
of light. Shades should be of a greenish tint, and roll from 
both top and bottom as may be desired.^ The walls of the 
schoolroom may be tinted so as greatly to favor the light. 
Dr. Shaw says : " A light green gray, as near to white as 
possible, is recommended. The light greenish gray should 
be soft and not harsh. It may be produced by the proper 
combination of pigments. Antwerp blue and raw sienna 
with white as a base, will give the proper tint. The walls in 
every instance should be painted, in order that they may 
be washed. There should be no gloss, and the paint put 
on should be stippled, to prevent all reflection. The ceil- 
ing should be white, in order that the least possible amount 
of light may be absorbed by it." 

Although many things about the schoolroom cannot be 
changed, the shades, the color of the walls, the direction 
from which the light comes upon the desks, are matters 
that admit of adjustment and correction. If the teacher 
appreciates the danger to the eyesight of children from 
neglect of the simplest precautions, and from failure to 
introduce measures of relief, he will not rest until the 
hygienic requirements are met. The flapping of shades, 
the exposure to direct sunlight, either upon the desk or 

1 I have seen an excellent shade manufactured by the Automatic Manu- 
facturing Company, Syracuse, N.Y. It is easily adjusted, durable, and may 
be set to shade any part of the window desired. It is peculiarly adapted to 
schoolrooms. 



302 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

in the face, the flickering shadows, however produced, the 
bad air in the room, — these, and other influences, exert a 
damaging effect upon the eyes. They must be corrected, 
and measures introduced to guard against dangerous and 
damaging effects upon the children. 

The Blackboards. — Blackboards should occupy every 
available space about the schoolroom. They should be of 
slate, either wholly black or of a greenish tint. Slate is 
more economical in the long run, than any other kind of 
blackboard, though more expensive at the outset. It is 
more easily kept clean, does not require so much crayon, 
and therefore does not create so much dust, and does not 
wear out. The cracks and holes incident to the wall 
blackboard, which are so unsightly ; the constantly fading 
color, requiring frequent recoating ; the expense of repairs, 
— all these make blackboards of this character most unde- 
sirable. Doubtless, it could be shown, from the standpoint 
of expense, even, that slate blackboards are the cheaper, 
besides being far better in every way. 

Blackboards should be 26 inches from the floor for 
primary, 30 inches for the intermediate, and 36 inches for 
the grammar grades. They should be supplied with a 
dust-trough 2^ inches wide. The blackboard should be 
frequently washed, the erasers dusted, and the troughs 
cleaned to prevent the accumulation of dust. 

Cloak-rooms — I have said that in every classroom there 
should be for each sex a cloak-room with two outlets and of 
sufficient size to admit of freedom of movement at the time 
of dismissal. The cloak-room should be well lighted, warm, 
and properly ventilated. It should connect with the class- 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 



303 



room and with the hall, and should be large enough to 
afford ample space for hats, wraps, and umbrellas, with suit- 
able receptacles for each. In no case should the hall be 
utilized for closet purposes. The halls should be kept in 
good condition, free from obstructions, and as attractive as 
possible. This would be impossible if they were lined with 
hooks upon which hats and wraps were hung. The halls 
should be kept tidy, not only for the sake of the impression 
made upon visitors, but also for the sake of the children, 
who are influenced by environment. More important still 
is the necessity of a dry and safe place where the wardrobe 
of the children can be kept in a wholesome condition, and 
at no risk of theft. 

Heating and Ventilation. — In the old-time school, no 
attention whatever was paid to ventilation. A great deal of 
agitation in recent years, combined with a careful study of 
the subject, has brought about a great change in the attitude 
of the public towards ventilation. Churches, public halls, 
schools, private residences, are being built on more hygienic 
plans, and their ventilation is being carefully considered. 
No new school building should be erected, even in the re- 
mote rural district, without installing some adequate system 
of purifying the air. Where a number of people are con- 
gregated for a considerable time within a small space, there 
is need of some means of changing the air. The old- 
fashioned stove with its rapid wood fire was most effective 
for dwelling-houses, and the open fireplace with its large 
chimney and its back-log was still more effective where 
there was question only of the members of the family. But 
in large buildings where many persons are brought together 
such primitive means will not suffice. Artificial means of 



304 



A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



changing the air are absolutely necessary. Some one has 
said, " If air is wanted in any particular place at any par- 
ticular time, it must be put there, not allowed to go." 
Hence, there must be fans to force the air into the rooms 
as wanted, and, on the other hand, there must be exhaust- 
fans to pump the foul air out. Both of these conditions 
must be met, or the bad smells of the school where many 
children are congregated will be apparent. 

Upon visiting a new school building in the city of Ber- 
lin, I was invited to examine the construction. I met the 
royal architect who had erected the building, and questioned 
him as to the ventilation. He explained that the air was 
allowed to come into the room near the ceiling and go out 
near the floor. "Is the system effective.?" I asked. "Oh, 
yes," said he, "it works very well." I stepped over to the 
outlet-flue and held my handkerchief before it. There was 
not the slightest movement. The architect remarked that 
the flue seemed to be out of order. "But," said I, "I 
have tried several flues with the same result. Moreover, I 
have noticed bad odors in many parts of the building, indi- 
cating that the ventilating system was ineffective." "Well," 
said he, "there is no use of practising deception. Our 
system here does not work, and no system will work unless 
there is artificial means of propelling the air. This we 
cannot afford in our public schools because of the great 
expense." 

The unpleasant odor of the schoolroom is not the worst 
feature of foul air, though it may be the first means of 
announcing the bad ventilation of a room. Far worse is 
the effect upon the health — the impaired eyesight, the 
weakened lungs, the vitiated blood, the depletion of vital 
life and power. All of these hinder the child from learning 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 305 

and the teacher from instructing. There is no doubt that 
bad ventilation of many school buildings is responsible not 
only for the ill-health of many children, but also for inef- 
ficient work. 

It is a general principle of ventilation that the fresh, pure 
air must be brought in direct from outdoors, heated to the 
proper temperature, and distributed to each individual 
room. It should be brought into the room near the ceiling, 
and the foul air removed from an opening perhaps two feet 
from the floor. Dr. Shaw seems to prove that these two 
openings should be on the same side of the room, though 
not one above the other. Not only must the fresh air be 
brought independently to each room, but there must be an 
individual outlet from each room for the bad air. The one 
is as essential as the other, and it will be found that if only 
one of these features is carried out, the ventilating system 
will be ineffective. In city schools where the question of 
expense is not so important, fans can be introduced as 
already suggested. The expense involved is sure to bring 
back returns, not only in the health of the pupils, which 
would be sufficient in itself, but also in the increased ability 
to perform school-tasks. The principal of a large school 
that was equipped with an efficient ventilating system, 
informed me that the air was not only pure and fresh at all 
times of the year, but upon hot days the temperature of 
the schoolrooms was several degi'ees lower than that out- 
side. Thus the school, instead of being a hot, stuffy, and 
dreaded place in warm weather, was made the most delight- 
ful and the coolest spot in the town. The air that was 
brought into the school passed first through a long duct in 
the ground beneath the basement, which cooled the air sev- 
eral degrees. If one could estimate the amount gained by 



306 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

teachers and pupils in this increased power of work through 
producing an agreeable temperature, it would be found that 
the outlay for a ventilating system and its maintenance is 
a good investment. 

Simpler and less expensive means of ventilation must be 
adopted for rural school buildings. I take the liberty to 
quote at length once more from Dr. Shaw upon this point : 
" In order to ventilate the rural schoolhouse, the stove 
should be placed in one corner of the room, and near the 
chimney. The stove should be enclosed by a sheet-iron 
jacket, leaving a distance of from i8 inches to 2 feet 
between the stove and the inside of the jacket. The jacket 
should be about 6 feet high, and should extend to the floor. 
The opening in the jacket for the purpose of supplying the 
stove with fuel should be as narrow as feasible. A cold- 
air duct should be constructed to lead from the outside of 
the building underneath the floor, and to open beneath the 
stove, so that pure, fresh air will flow in, be warmed by the 
stove, and rise to the ceiling. 

"The point to be secured in the heating and ventilating 
of the rural schoolhouse is the quick and uniform distribu- 
tion of the heat to all parts of the room. In the opposite 
side of the room from the stove, a tin or galvanized iron 
ventilating-duct should be constructed, oblong in shape, 
having its cross-section dimensions 12x6 inches. The 
open end of this duct should be within i foot of the floor. 
The flue should extend to the ceiling and run along the 
ceiling to the chimney. There should not be any sharp 
angle in this duct, but a curved bend where the upright 
section unites with that which runs along the ceiling. The 
ventilating-duct should discharge into a large chimney-flue, 
at least 14 x 20 inches of cross-section area. In the mid- 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 307 

die of this flue there should run a sheet-iron pipe of suffi- 
cient capacity to deliver the smoke and gases from the 
stove. The heat radiated from this pipe when there is a 
brisk fire in the stove will cause a strong draught in the 
flue and draw the air out of the schoolroom through the 
ventilating-duct . ' ' 

Whenever a new school building is to be erected in a 
rural district, this very simple and inexpensive apparatus 
should be put in. The good which would follow its intro- 
duction would be well worth the cost. Many country 
trustees think that because their school is isolated and not 
hemmed in by other buildings as is the case with city 
schools, no attention need be paid to ventilation, that it 
will take care of itself. This is an error. If the building 
is made tight so that it can be properly heated and made 
comfortable for cold weather, it needs a ventilating system. 
Hence it should not be omitted in the construction of a 
new building. 

Ventilation of Old Buildings. — When the ventilating 
system is not put in during the construction of the building, 
the problem of securing good air for the schoolroom is very 
difficult. And yet something may be done if the situation 
is carefully studied. In the absence of more expensive 
devices, a board may be placed at the bottom of the win- 
dow so that the lower sash can be raised without subjecting 
the children to draughts, and the fresh air allowed to enter 
between the two window-sashes. The child should never 
be exposed to a draught. The danger from a draught is 
immediate, that from foul air more remote. It is better 
even to allow the pupils to sit in a close room for a time 
than to expose them to a draught. If the air becomes 



308 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

foul, let there be a short recess during which the children 
are exercised, the windows thrown open, and the room 
flushed with fresh air. 

Foul air in the room will be unnoticed by the inmates 
until it becomes particularly bad. The condition of the 
air will be detected at once by one coming in from the 
fresh air outside. Therefore the pupils should be encour- 
aged to report the situation at once if they discover impure 
air in the room. Smarting sensation of the eyes, heaviness, 
listlessness, drowsiness, headache, inability to give atten- 
tion, are evidences of foul air ; and when these signs appear, 
there is no economy in continuing to teach ; the evil must 
be corrected. 

The temperature of the room should be kept at 68 to 
70 degrees. The temperature, however, is no sure indi- 
cation of pure air. The teacher must train himself to be 
sensitive to the condition of the atmosphere of his school- 
room, and he should never forget that when there is foul 
air, his first duty is to correct the evil. Great improve- 
ment in the ventilation of schoolhouses has been made 
during the last decade. There is room for further improve- 
ment, and the problem is still under investigation. Hence, 
whenever a ventilating plant is to be installed, information 
as to the latest improvements should be sought. 

Storeroom. — Every school building should be provided 
with a room in which the apparatus, maps, school supplies, 
books, etc., can be securely locked. Lack of such a room 
is often responsible for a considerable loss to the district. 
If text-books are furnished at public expense, and if the 
school possesses suitable implements for successful work, 
the school property amounts to a considerable sum. There 



THE SCHOOL INTERIOR. 



309 



should be a suitable and safe place for keeping this prop- 
erty, and then the teacher should be held accountable for 
its preservation. Trustees sometimes refuse to furnish 
the necessary supplies, and when the teacher fails to take 
proper care of the school property it only aggravates the 
difficulty. If a storeroom is provided, the teacher may 
well be held accountable for the property committed to his 
care. The children also should be taught to exercise the 
same care in the use of public as of private property. 
This is an important lesson that American youth need to 
learn. 



APPENDIX. 



MORAL INSTRUCTION.! 
COURSE IN THE ANDERSON, INDIANA, PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

The moral instruction of children is the highest duty 
imposed upon teachers. Many children receive little moral 
training at home ; they attend neither church nor Sunday 
school ; therefore, if they receive moral instruction at all, it 
must be in the public schools. So whatever other work of 
this course is slighted, the part relating to moral instruction 
should be carried out. 

The aim of moral instruction is to teach the child to 
know, to love, and to do the right. It, therefore, appeals 
to the intellect, to the sensibilities, and to the will. While all 
children have a moral conscience, yet what is right and what 
is wrong must be taught to them the same as other facts. 
The moral judgment must be developed. This culture of 
the moral understanding should be accompanied by a heart 
culture that causes the child to love the good. The moral 
sensibilities need cultivation as well as the moral intellect. 
But the final outgrowth of moral training is upright con- 
duct, and unless this result is attained the training goes 
for naught. The child should be taught to be industrious, 
honest, truthful, obedient, patriotic, and reverential. His 
moral acts should be repeated until they become habits. 

1 Inserted by the courtesy of Superintendent J. W. Carr. 
311 



312 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

Civic obligations should constitute a part of the moral 
instruction of children. Teachers should teach children 
what they owe to the State, and how they can best discharge 
these obligations, both as children and as adults. If chil- 
dren spend from eight to twelve years in the public schools, 
they should receive such training and discipline as will fit 
them for citizenship. 

The means to be employed in giving moral instruction 
are various, — a few only can be mentioned here. No elabo- 
ration is deemed necessary. 

1. The Example of the Teacher. — All children are crea- 
tures of imitation, and are influenced greatly by their sur- 
roundings. 

2. The Discipline of the School. — A well-ordered and 
a well-disciplined school is a veritable nursery for the train- 
ing of children in morals. In such a school moral virtues 
are not only taught by precept and example, but the 
children are trained in moral acts. They learn indus- 
try, truthfulness, honesty, kindness, obedience, politeness, 
respect, and reverence by constant observation and daily 
practice. 

3. By Precept. — Teachers should give positive instruc- 
tion in manners and morals. This instruction should be 
given, not only incidentally in connection with other lessons, 
but the first period of the day should be set apart for in- 
struction in this subject. Beautiful songs, poems, and stories 
have their place in the opening exercises, but I wish to com- 
mend especially the reading of the Sacred Scriptures as an 
essential part of the moral training of children. 



APPENDIX. 



3^3 



4. By Commendation. — Teachers should be alert to 
commend religious services, including attendance at church, 
Sunday school, and religious meetings of various kinds, as 
the most helpful means for the development of character. 
They should also commend obedience and respect for par- 
ents, the obedience and respect for laws of the school and 
of the State. 

5. By Conferences with Parents. — If the school is to do 
the most possible in developing the moral character of 
children, there must be mutual understanding and sym- 
pathy between teachers and parents. The school is capable 
of supplementing the work of the home, and the home the 
work of the school. 

A list of topics that should receive special attention will 
be given in connection with the outline for each grade. It is 
not enough for these topics to be taught abstractly. They 
can be presented best by concrete examples. The aim 
should be to put into active practice the moral precepts 
taught. 

FIRST GRADE. 

1. Conversation with the children, in which the teacher 
aims to secure the confidence of the children and to learn 
the general characteristics of each individual. 

2. Drill in sitting, walking, marching, busy-work, re- 
citing, etc., in which children learn the ways of the school. 
These exercises are of the greatest importance, as in this 
way children are taught self-control and obedience. 

3. Obedience to parents and teachers. 

4. Kindness to parents, brothers, sisters, playmates. 

5. Unselfishness — sharing playthings, etc., with others. 

6. Love of parents. 



314 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



SECOND GRADE. 

I. Conversation with pupils, in which teachers aim to 
secure the confidence and respect of the children and to 
learn the peculiarities of each individual. 

2. Various schoolroom exercises, in which children are 
drilled in promptness, obedience, and self-control. 

3. Truthfulness — give numerous illustrations to enforce 
the lesson. See " Children's Book of Moral Lessons." 

4. Kindness to animals — read " Black Beauty." 

5. Cleanliness of person and dress.. 

6. Pleasant voice and pleasing manners. 

7. Love of home. 

8. How children may help make a good school — by 
being quiet, industrious, polite, etc. 

9. Review work of previous grade. 

THIRD GRADE. 

1. Conversation with pupils in which the teacher aims 
to secure their confidence and respect and to learn the 
peculiarities of each individual. This is of great impor- 
tance. 

2. Special attention to the various schoolroom exer- 
cises, in which the pupils are trained to study, to obey 
promptly, to be quiet, to help others, and to help them- 
selves. 

3. Cheerfulness, and the advantages it is to one's self, 
and the happiness it brings to others. 

4. Honesty and its rewards. 

5. Respect for parents, teachers, strangers, and old 
people. 



APPENDIX. 



315 



6. Good habits, also some things we wish to avoid — 
swearing, smoking, chewing, and the use of coarse lan- 
guage. 

7. Love of the flag. 

8. How children may help to keep the city clean — by 
not throwing paper on streets, by picking up papers, etc., 
found on the streets, protecting shade-trees, not marking 
on fences, buildings, etc. 

9. Review the topics of previous grades. 



FOURTH GRADE. 

1. Conversation with pupils, in which the teacher aims 
to secure their confidence and respect and learn the pecu- 
liarities of each. 

2. Special attention to schoolroom exercises, in which 
the pupils learn obedience, promptness, regularity, cheer- 
fulness, helpfulness to others, and the rules of true polite- 
ness. 

3. Self-respect — the qualities that a person must have 
before he will respect himself. This will furnish an oppor- 
tunity to review most of the subjects presented in the 
previous grades. See the " Children's Book of Moral 
Lessons." 

4. Some of the rights and privileges of children. 

5. Respect for the rights and privileges of others. 

6. Politeness at home, at the table, on the street, in 
company, 

7. Letters of recommendation — good habits the best 
recommendation a boy or girl can have. 

8. Care of public and private property — school prop- 
erty, yards and fences belonging to others, etc, 



3l6 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



FIFTH GRADE. 

1. Train pupils to do their school-work without the 
teacher continually watching and urging them. Pupils 
should frequently be tested in conduct. It may be well 
for the teacher to leave the room sometimes in order that 
the pupils may test themselves. 

2. Street conduct. Pupils should be given directions 
concerning the proper way of conducting themselves on the 
street. They should be given ways for testing themselves. 

3. Helpfulness in the school. Train children to help 
themselves, to help the teacher, to help their fellows. This 
will not be effective unless children are actually trained to 
practise these virtues. 

4. Industry — its necessity, its benefits and rewards. 

5. Promptness and regularity. 

6. Economy and its relation to getting on in the world. 

7. Justice. Examples of justice should be taken from 
the home, the school, the playground, and society. The 
idea may be enforced by examples of justice. See '' Chil- 
dren's Book of Moral Lessons^" 

8. Mercy. Pupils should be taught to temper justice 
with mercy. 

SIXTH GRADE. 

1. Duties to one's self. Cleanliness, sobriety, temper- 
ance, intellectual development, physical exercise. See 
"Children's Book of Moral Lessons." 

2. Necessity, rewards, and dignity of labor. Children 
should be taught to honor the man or woman who works. 
They should also be taught that all kinds of useful labor 
are honorable, also that all classes of persons should work. 



APPENDIX. 



3^7 



3. Unselfishness and its corresponding vice — selfishness. 

4. Reverence for the aged, for those in authority, and 
for God. 

5. Develop a proper school sentiment in reference to 
study, conduct, politeness, and teach pupils how they can 
be most helpful to others. Show children that this is the 
best training they can possibly have to fit them to be cit- 
izens. 

SEVENTH GRADE. 

1. The family. Reciprocal duties of parents and chil- 
dren ; reciprocal duties of employers and employees. 

2. Society. Necessity and benefits of society. Justice 
the essential condition of all society. Mutual responsibility ; 
human brotherhood. 

3. What one owes to his country — obedience to the 
laws ; the services of citizenship ; defence in times of peril. 
Taxes and duties — condemnation of all frauds against the 
State. Voting — morally obligatory, it must be free, con- 
scientious, disinterested, intelligent. Rights corresponding 
to these duties — individual liberty, liberty of conscience, 
liberty of labor, liberty of association. Guaranty of the 
security of the life and property of all. 

4. Duty of the strong to the weak. 

5. Test the pupils in conduct, to see if they are acquir- 
ing strength in self- direct ion and self-government at home, 
at school, on the street, etc. 

EIGHTH GRADE. 

1. Freedom — political, religious. 

2. Patriotism — what is it .? How should we show our 
patriotism ? 



3l8 A NEW SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

3. True manhood and true womanhood. 

4. The ideal family. 

5. Careful review of topics suggested in seventh grade. 

6. Tests in conduct, to see whether or not pupils know 
the right and have the strength to do the right. The 
virtues implanted should bear fruit in the school life and 
home life of the children, and should control their future 
life wherever they may be. 

HIGH-SCHOOL GRADES. 

1. Character Study. — Character study should form an 
important part of the work in history and literature in the 
high school. All the moral and intellectual elements that 
go to make up character can in this way be studied to 
advantage. 

2. Duty Should be Thoroughly Discussed. — Duty to 

family, duty to society, duty to the State, duty to self, and 
duty to God. Perhaps there is no other subject that needs 
to be discussed more by American youths than this. Again, 
the pupils should see the supremacy of law and the necessity 
of all persons acting in conformity with law. Pupils should 
be led to see that violation of the laws of nature, of the 
family, of the State, and of God, brings suffering, and in 
many instances destruction. This needs to be enforced 
by numerous examples. 

3. Self-control and Self -direction. — These subjects 
need to be taught not so much by precept as by practice. 
Pupils need special and constant drill in order that habits 
of self-control and self-direction may become thoroughly 
fixed. The principal of the high school and every teacher 



APPENDIX. 



Z'^9 



should give special attention to the teaching of this 
subject. 

4. Respect for and Obedience to Law This subject 

should be taught so thoroughly by precept and example 
that all pupils who go through high school will learn it. 
The aim of the school should be to train pupils not only to 
obey the law, but to take pleasure in doing so. 



INDEX. 



Absence, an injustice to others, 109. 
Academic training, necessary, 12. 
Accuracy, how cultivated, 123. 

teaches morals, 141. 
Address, on first day of school, 35. 
Adler, Felix, on personality of 

teacher, 5. 
Advantages of the mixed school, 53. 

of the graded school, 56. 
Alexander the Great, and Aristotle, 

23- 

Altruism, of the teacher, 10. 

Ambition, aroused in the graded 
school, 57. 

Apparel, to be neat, 102. 

influences other children, 148. 

Appeal to honor, 73. 
how taught, 75. 

Appendix, course in moral instruc- 
tion, 310. 

Application, for a position, 27. 
of the lesson in the recitation, 226. 

Appointment, of teachers, 263. 

Arbor Day, how to utiHze, 288. 

Architecture, of school buildings, 
284, 295, 301. 

Aristotle, teacher of Alexander the 
Great, 23. 
universal knowledge of, 233. 

Army, German, good effects of, 142. 

Arnold, Matthew, on conduct, 130. 

Arnold, of Rugby, as a teacher, 3, 
4,8. 
as a man, 278. 

Assignment, of the lesson, 37, 209. 

Assistance, giving and withholding 
of, 162. 

Assistant, to be loyal, 282. 

Association, third step in the recita- 
tion, 224. 

Associations, teachers', 252. 

Athletic sports, 171. 

Attendance, in graded schools, 58. 
irregularity in, 107. 



Attention, necessity of, 215. 

how secured, 216. 
Authority, of the teacher to be re- 
spected, 98. 

of officials to be respected, 136. 

of the teacher, 167. 

when to be used, 258. 

Bailey, Prof., on school-grounds, 
286. 

Basil the Great, on punishment, 86. 

Beecher, class-rank of, 167. 

Bell, use of, 125. 

Berlin, recruits in, 141. 

ventilation of school in, 304. 

Bertram, Dr., on American schools, 
279. 

Bible, should be read in school, 34. 

Blackboard, exercise on to be neat, 
123. 
use of, 221. 
construction of, 302. 

Boarding-place, seeking of, 28. 

Boniface, Saint, 181. 

Books, distribution of, 37. 

Boy, the good and the bad, 93. 

Bridgman, Laura, lesson in obedi- 
ence, 68. 

Brutality, to be condemned, 99. 

Building, school, 290. 

Bureaus, teachers', 27. 

Business director, in cities, 262. 

Busy work, devices for, 127, 

Butler, scheme of relative values, 
221. 

Calkins, N. A., 8. 
Carelessness, treatment of, loi. 
Carr, J. W., on moral instruction, 

153. 310- 
Cautions, to teachers, 155. 
Cellar, of school buildings, 292. 
Character, of the teacher, 4, 138. 
to be implanted, 170. 



321 



322 



INDEX. 



Character, building of, 234. 

study of, 317. 
Charlemagne, 181. 
Cheating, treatment of, 116. 
Child, right to education, 58. 

must be obedient, 68. 

not to be condemned too hastily, 
160. 
Children, love for essential, 6. 

sorrows of, 7. 

employment of, 38, 143. 

method of teaching, 208. 

must be given the concrete, 217. 

relation to superintendent, 276. 
Church, has a part in education, 2. 

teacher should attend, 246. 
City school, 57. 
Civilization, demands of, 2. 
Classes, size of, 47. 
Classification, of school, 51. 
Class-rank, 173. 
Cleveland, on manners, 135. 
Cloak-rooms, 302. 

College, influence upon lower 
schools, 57. 

specialization in, 238. 
Comenius, on learning to do, 133. 
Commendation, in moral teaching, 

312. 
Committee of twelve, on grading, 61. 
Common sense, of a superintendent, 

8. 
Community, teacher responsible to, 
20. 

should appreciate their teacher, 
24. 

influenced by the teacher, 138. 

watches the teacher, 160. 

idea of promotion, 188. 

interest in school, 160. 
Compulsory law. State should en- 
force, 108. 
Concentration, in study, 212. 
Confidence, how secured, 79. 

withdrawal of, 92. 
Conscience, to be awakened, 80. 
Contract, of teachers, 27. 
Control, must be kept, 81, 167. 
Cooper, Peter, early promise of, 166. 
Co-operation, among teachers, 5. 

with parents, 244. 
Corporal punishment, 85, 276. 



Correspondence, in securing a posi- 
tion, 25. 
County superintendent, 26. 

course of study of, 63. 

on discipline, 66. 
Country school, 51, 53. 

grading of, 60. 
Country teacher, 28. 
Course of study, how made, 263. 

in morals, 312, 
Courtesy, virtue of, 137. 
Cramming, definition of, 196. 
Criticism, of old-time school, 124. 

by superintendent, 265. 

by parents, 274. 
Culture, general, to be fostered, 229. 
Curriculum, to be broad, 222. 

improvement of, 228. 

Darwin, early characteristics of, 104. 
Desks, rules for adjvisting, 298. 
Devices, for busy work, 127. 
Dignity, not to be assumed, 34. 
Discipline, on first day, ^^. 

as a means to an end, 66. 

example of, 168. 

of grade teacher best, 235. 

supt. not to interfere with, 268. 

principal to assist in, 281. 

as a means of moral instruction, 

311- 
Diseases, teacher's knowledge of, 

242. 
Disorder, to be checked, 67. 

children's idea of, 78. 
Disposition, of teacher, should be 

good, 7. 
District clerk, keeps the school rec- 
ords, 29. 
Doctrines, not to be taught in the 

school, 169. 
Drill, employment of, 221. 
Drudgery, of school- work, 273. 
Dull child, patience with, 165, 167, 
190. 
duty of supt. toward, 277. 
Duty, to be basis of choice, 103. 
in performance of tasks, 126. 
regard for, 129. 
of the teacher to pupils, 241, 
to parents, 241. 
to the community, 245. 



INDEX. 



3-^3 



Duty, to the school board, 248. 
to his successor, 255. 
to himself, 256. 

to be discussed in the school-work, 
317- 

Economy, of time, essential, 39. 

in arrangement of schedule, 41. 
Education, factors of, i. 

State's duty with, 3. 

a natural birthright, 167, 
Educational values, consideration of, 

42. 
Effort, to be rewarded, 173. 
Egypt, story of Joseph in, 149. 
Emerson, on character, 5. 
Employment of pupils, 39, 189. 

how to secure, 48. 

moral purpose of, 143. 
Emulation, 172. 

England, effect of schools in, 139. 
English, errors in, 26. 
Environment, effect of, 88. 

importance of, 143. 

in teaching morality, 147. 
Etiquette, attention to necessary, 134. 

among teachers, 253. 
Evans, Mrs., on moral training, 153. 
Evil, not to be anticipated, 71. 

of tardiness, 105. 

of sarcasm, 157. 
Evils, different ones considered, loi. 
Examinations, employed for infor- 
mation of parents, 20. 

abandonment of, 185, 

in promotion, 193. 

character of, 195, 200. 

educational value of, 199, 

by superintendents, 263. 
Example, of teacher, 16, 159, 311. 

in punishment, 88. 

of other children, 152. 

effect of, 171. 
Excuses, for tardiness, 105. 
Exhibits, to be encouraged, 123. 
Experience, importance of, 156. 
Expulsion, duty of school board, 96. 
Exterior, of schools, 284. 
Eyesight, care of, 242. 

Faculty, to advise the pupil, 240. 
Farm -life, trains to responsibility, 
15- 



Father, part of in education, 2. 

in correcting irregularity, no. 

in home-work, 162. 
Favoritism, charge of, 176. 
Fighting, treatment of, 151. 
Firmness, in discipline, 72. 

in requirements, 158. 
Fitch, on teaching, 14. 
''Formal steps," Herbartian, 222. 
Forms, of politeness, 132, 137. 
France, moral instruction in, 139. 

garb of children in, 148. 
Frankness, on the part of the 
teacher, 31, 78, 112. 

in children, 157. 
Froebel, as a teacher, 3. 

in naming the kindergarten, 55. 

on instruction, 163. 

Galileo, early character of, 104. 
Genius, need of teaching of, 230. 
Genuineness, of the teacher, 4. 

in appeal to honor, 77. 
Germans, respect for teachers of, 23. 

love for music of, 34. 

scheme of grading of, 61. 

politeness of, 136. 

on promotion, 187. 

on reviews, 205. 

method of teaching of, 207. 

ideas concerning food of, 241. 

school regulations of, 279. 
Gladstone, lesson from, 150. 
Gordy, on teaching, 14. 

on authority of teacher, 82. 
Government, part in education of, i. 

of school, 65. 
Grade, teacher of, 235. 

unity of purpose of teachers of, 
271. 
Graded school, advantages of, 56. 
Grading, of rural schools, 51. 

of German schools, 52. 

plan of, 60. 
Grant, General, at West Point, 166. 
Great Teacher, spirit of, 32. 
Greenwood, on specialization, 228. 
Group plan, of grading, 236. 

Habits, discipline to fix them, 70. 

supplant evil with good ones, loi. 
Harris, Dr. W. T., on number of 
school days, 54. 



3^4 



INDEX. 



Harris, on promotion, 185. 

on relative values, 231. 
Health of the teacher, 9. 

of the children, 18. 
Heating, 303. 

Helpfulness, to be taught to chil- 
dren, 152. 
Herbartians, on instruction, 163. 

on the recitation, 222. 
High-school, minimum course for 
teachers, 13. 

specialization in, 237. 

different courses of, 239. 
History, employed in teaching mor- 
als, 149. 
Hoffmann, picture by, 148. 
Home, part of in education, i. 

environment of, 88, 102, 118, 277. 
Home-work, too much not to be al- 
lowed, 46. 

a father concerning, 162. 
Honesty, teacher to practise, 160. 
Honor, appeal to, 74, 117. 

of a boy, 112. 

in ranking, 174. 
Huling, R. G., on the principal, 275, 

276, 279. 
Humboldt, Alexander von, 136. 
Hygiene, should be taught, 241. 

state laws concerning, 291. 

Idleness, how treated, 126. 

Illustration, use of, 218. 

Imitation not to be servile, 269. 

Immortal beings, children to be con- 
sidered as, 169. 

Impudence, treatment of, 119. 

Incentives, for school- work, 171. 
the highest, 180. 

Incidents, to be utilized, 145. 

Inclination, not to govern choice, 
103. 

Individual, rights of, 67. 

to be considered in punishment, 
88. 

Individuality, promulgated in mixed 
school, 54. 

Industry, to be required, 126. 

Instruction, right kind of, 163. 
methods of, 208, 224. 

Intellectual growth, teacher respon- 
sible for, 20. 



Interest, destroyed by marking, 217. 

how aroused, 217. 

permanency of, 230. 
Interior, of the school, 295. 
Introduction, how to give, 133. 
Invention, 176. 

Irregularity, in attendance, 107. 
Isolation, as a form of punishment, 
91. 

Jacob, story of, 150. 

Jesuits, use of emulation, 172. 

Jews, politeness of, 136. 

Johnson, Dr., on interest, 217. 

Joseph, story of, 149. 

Jukes family, criminal record of, 108. 

Justice, teaching of, 146. 

Kindergarten, how named, 55. 
Knowledge, to be thorough, 221, 

225. 

La Salle, on grading, 228. 

Law, respect for to iDe taught, 73. 

sustains the teacher, 121. 
Laziness, how treated, 102. 
Leipsic, lesson in school of, 241. 
Lesson, how to assign, 37, 209. 

in silence, 124. 

essentials of, 212. 
Letter, of application, 26. 
Letters, as symbols in marking, 174. 
Liberty, essential for the teacher, 

282. 
Light, in the schoolroom, 291, 300. 
Lincoln, lessons from, 150. 
Literature, use of in moral instruc- 
tion, 149. 

educational, activity in, 232. 

should be supported, 251. 
Livingstone, lessons from, 150. 
Locke, on personal inclination, 103. 
Logic, teacher must possess, 10. 
Lang, W. J., on obedience of ani- 
mals, 243. 
Lowell, on the spirit of the teacher, 5. 
Loyalty, to be inculcated, 250. 

of teachers to eacn other, 254. 
Luther, concerning singing in school, 
34. 

translation of the Scripture, 81. 
Lying, treatment of, 115. 



INDEX. 



3'^S 



Lying, compared with loose thinking, 

123. 
Lyon,Mary,on character of women, 5 . 

Manners, lo be taught, 134. 
Marden, on dunces, 167. 
Marking, character of, 177. 

purpose of, 178. 

method of, 178. 
Materials, of the school, 29. 

of graded schools better, 58. 
McMurry, scheme of all-round de- 
velopment, 231. 
Meetings, of teachers, 271. 

of parents, 244, 282. 
Memory, examinations not mere test 
of, 201. 

Dr. Johnson on, 217. 

in learning a rule, 235. 
Methods, of teaching, 15. 

should be the best, 129. 

of Germans, 207. 

variety in, 222. 

different kinds of, 224. 
Mischief, distinction of made, 167. 
Mixed school, program in, 37. 

arrangement of lessons in, 44. 

advantages of, 53, 59. 
Monitor, use of, 77, 81. 
Morals, teacher as affecting, 17, 19. 

at recess, 45. 

taught by appeal to honor, 80. 

of the school must be good, 95. 

in treating tardiness, 107. 

in and out of school, 127. 

chapter on, 138. 

how to teach, 140. 

in connection with out-buildings, 

293- 
course in, 310. 
Music, in Italy or Germany, 148. 

an assistance to order, 152. 
Miinsterberg, Prof., on the natural 

bent, 229. 
Mutilation, of school property, 36. 

Nagging, must not be indulged in, 

69. 73- 

habit of in teacher, 168. 
Names, how to secure, 35. 
National Educational Association, 

on grading, 61. 



Nature study, in country schools, 55. 
Neatness, how cultivated, 122. 
in dress, 173. 
in work done, 221, 
Newton, Sir Isaac, early promise 

of, 166. 
Nightingale, Florence, lessons from, 

. 150. 
Noise, treatment of, 67. 

teacher not to set bad example of, 
125. 
Normal school, training of students 

in, 155- 
Note-books, in German schools, 123. 
for materials on morals, 147. 
on offences committed, 95. 

Obedience, essential to good order, 
67. 
often not learned at home, 98. 
to law to be taught, 318. 
Offence, punishment to be sequence 

of, 86. 
Offenders, to be called to strict ac- 
count, 7, 79. 
should be shown the wrong, 92. 
One-session plan, evils of, 46. 
Opening, of school, 34. 
Opportunity, of the teacher, 15. 

of the mixed school, 54. 
Order, rests chiefly upon grade 

teacher, 283. 
Organization on the first day, 33. 

of graded school, 56. 
Oswego normal school. Dr. Sheldon 

of, 157- 
Out-buildings, control of, 151. 

character of, 293. 
Oxford scholarships, 176. 

Paderewski, to a talented boy, 230. 
Parents, duty of to teachers, 16. 

in regard to regularity, 58, 107. 

may use corporal punishment, 85. 

to be consulted, 92. 

boastings of, 128. 

in teaching politeness, 133. 

how they should help, 164. 

duty of, 210. 

factor in selection of course, 239. 

duty of teacher towards, 243. 

relation to superintendent, 274. 



326 



INDEX. 



Parents, interest in school-grounds, 
290. 

conferences with, 312. 
Parents' meetings, 244, 282. 
Parker, Col. F. W., as a teacher, 3. 

on laziness, 102. 

on his own limitations, 166. 
Patience, necessity of, 6, 69. 

trials of, 157. 

with the dull child, 165. 
Pedagogy, works on, 232. 

advance in, 259. 
Pedantry, of teachers, 29. 
Permanency, lack of a great evil, 

53. 60. 
Perseverance, acquired through ef- 
fort, 165. 
Pestalozzi, as a teacher, 3. 
Physical, importance to morals, 141. 

care of body, 241. 
Pictures, for moral purposes, 148. 
Play, use of, 167. 
Playground, the teacher on, 45, 172. 

pupils on, 91. 

morals taught there, 141. 

should be attractive, 286, 
Politeness, a virtue, 130, 

how taught, 131. 
Position, how secured, 25. 
Potsdam, soldiers at, 142. 
Precept, as a means of moral in- 
struction, 31 1. 
Preparation, of the teacher, 12. 

for opening school, 25. 

first step in the recitation, 223. 
Presentation, second step in the reci- 
tation, 223. 
Princeton, Cleveland at, 135. 
Principal, expects order of teacher, 

iSS- 
relation to teacher, 168. 
advice of, in promotion, 192. 
Mr, Huling on, 275. 
duties of, 278. 
Principles, relating to punishment, 

Privileges, withdrawal of, 91. 
Prizes, 146, 174, 182. 
Professional training, necessarv, 12, 
156. 
character of, 14. 
Profanity, treatment of, 151. 



Program, tentative one at first, 41. 

leaving old one at school, 256. 
Promises, to be kept, 160. 
Promotion, to satisfy parents, 20. 

history of, 184. 

object of, 186. 

frequency of, 188. 

teacher's judgment in, 191. 

how determined, .192. 

relation of superintendent to, 276. 
Property, of school to be preserved, 

31. 36. 
Psychology, necessity of, 15. 
Punctuality, necessity of, 105. 
Punishment, character of, 84. 

definition of, 84. 

kinds of, 89. 

corporal, 97, 276. 
Pupil, regard of for prizes, 177. 

estimate of promotion, 186. 

promotion of, 191. 
Pupils, physical well-being of, 18. 

place in recitation, 37. 

of graded school, 57, 

relation of to teacher, 82. 

duty of teacher towards, 241. 

Qualities, of the teacher, 4. 
Questioning, in teaching, 208. 
art of, 214. 

Ranking, in college, 173, 174. 
Rebellion, treatment of, 119. 
Recapitulation, of first day's work, 
40. 

importance of, 48. 

of daily schedule, 49. 

of scheme of grading, 63. 

fourth step of recitation, 224. 
Recess, abandonment of discour- 
aged, 44. 

pupils at, 150. 

teacher's conduct at, 151. 
Recitation, seating pupils in, 37. 

number of a day, 47. 

in the mixed school, 54. 

purpose of, 177, 265. 

marking of, 179. 

use of term, 207. 

Herbartian steps of, 222. 
Recreation, of pupils, 46. 

of the teacher, 31. 



INDEX. 



327 



Reform, not primar}^ purpose of 

school, 93. 
Register, old one to be secured, 29. 

use temporary one at first, 35. 
Regularity, of attendance, 58. 
Religion, morning exercises teach, 34. 

necessary to complete education, 
168. 

respect for to be taught, 247. 
Reports, to parents, 20, 95. 

to school board, 248. 

to superintendent, 273. 
Reproof, as a form of punishment, 
89. 

effectiveness of, 158. 
Repeal, of imnecessary rules, 73. 
Respect, won by firmness, 83. 

for the aged, 135. 

for law, 318. 
Responsibility, of the teacher, 12, 15. 

country boys trained to, 55. 

of teacher for discipline, 155. 
Reverence, need of cultivating, 17, 
90. 

for old age, 136. 
Reviews, different kinds of, 203. 

to be oral and written, 206. 
Rewards, of the teacher, 21. 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, early charac- 
teristics of, 104. 
Rhodes, Cecil, Oxford scholarships 

of, 176. 
Rights, of pupils to be jjreserved, 67. 
Rivalry, natural instinct, 171, 173. 
Roll of honor, as school device, 109. 
Romans, politeness of, 136. 
Rosenkranz, on authority, 7. 

on obedience, 82, 

on truth, 123. 

on politeness, 131. 
Rousseau, on education, 86. 
Rugby, Arnold of, 3, 4, 8, 278, 

Tom Brown of, 152. 
Rule, necessity of learning, 225. 
Rules, how to make, 70. 

Salary, of teacher, 21. 

not chief motive, 28. 
Sarcasm, bad effects of, 98, 157. 
Schedule, carrying out of, 37. 

essentials to be studied, 41. 
Schiller, early characteristics of, 104. 



Scholarships, 176. 
School, opening of, 25. 

first day of, 33. 

mixed, 37. 

classification of, 51. 

the old-time, 222. 

specialization in elementary, 238. 
School board, estimate of teachers of, 
5- 

in selection of teachers, 15. 

should be interested, 30. 

sustain teacher, 121. 

duty of teacher to, 248. 

on hygienic conditions, 296. 
School building, to be visited, 29. 

kind of, 290. 
School government, chapter on, 65. 

must aim at good habits, 70. 
School-grounds, 285. 

choice of, 286. 

improvement of, 288. 

to be made attractive, 290. 
School morals, chapter on, 138. 
Schoolroom, seating of, 29, 298. 

to be the central idea in planning 
a building, 292. 

size and shape of, 297. 
School subjects, arrangement of, 42. 
School virtues, chapter on, 122. 
Scolding, evils of, 158. 
Scott, Sir Walter, early life of, 166. 
Scrap-book, for stories, etc., 147. 

value of, 150. 
Seating, on the first morning, 36. 
Seats, for the recitation, 38. 

Dr. Shaw on, 298. 
Seat -work, to be specified, 48, 163. 
Sectarianism, to be excluded from 

schools, 170. 
Self -activity, taught by Froebel, 163. 
Self-control, 36, 317. 
Self -discipline, 70, 171. 
Self -exertion, necessity of, 130. 
Self-reliance, in a mixed school, 53. 

necessary for teacher, 65. 
Self-sacrifice, lessons in, 153. 

case of, 161. 
Seneca, on punishment, 86. 
Sexes, mingling of, 44, 150. 
Shades, value of, 300. 
Shaw, Dr. E. R., on school hygiene, 
284, 291. 



328 



INDEX. 



Sheldon, Dr. E. A., 8, 137. 
Silence, kind of to be taught, 124. 
Singing, on the first morning, 34. 
Skill, with dull child, 165. 
Sneaking, despicable character of, 78. 
Spartans, politeness of, 136. 
Specialization, 228. 

advantages of, 232. 

below high school, 234. 

in the high school, 237. 
Spencer, on punishment, 87. 
Spying, meanness of, 73, 151. 
Spirit, of politeness, 137. 
Standing, in class, 174. 
State and education, 3, 9. 

must protect the child, 14. 

on grading, 64. 

punishments of, 84. 

theory of punishment, 86. 

duty to incorrigibles, 96. 

should secure regularity, 108. 
Stealing, treatment of, 117. 
Storeroom, 308. 
Stoy, K. v., pupils of, 118. 

on reviewing, 203. 

on all-round development, 243. 
Study, how to, 211. 
Sturm, courses of study of, 228. 
Success, of pupils, a reward to the 

teacher, 23. 
Superintendent, chapter on, 261. 

executive duties of, 261. 

as supervisor, 264. 

in visiting schools, 265. 

leadership of, 270. 

in teachers' meetings, 271. 

reports to, 273. 

relation to parents, 274. 

relation to children, 276. 
Suspension, a form of punishment, 

92. 
Suspicion, to be avoided, 280. 
Symbols, used in marking, 179. 
Sympathy, between teacher and 
principal, 283. 

Tale-bearing, by little children, no. 

treatment of, 113. 
Tardiness, treatment of, 105. 

an example of, 161. 
Tasks, child not allowed to avoid, 
103, 130. 



Tasks, training to perform, 126, 164. 

Tatthng, evils of, no. 

Teacher, personality of, i, 5, 237. 

high calHng of, 3. 

qualities of necessary, 4, 251. 

not "born," 12. 

responsibility of, 15, 82. 

place of in society, 16. 

true character of, 17, 138, 248. 

rewards of, 21. 

duty on first day of school, 33. 

enthusiasm of, 37. 

must lay broad plans, 51. 

must keep order, 65, 156. 

is clothed with authority, 68. 

must win support of pupils, 72, 
229. 

must apply theory of punish- 
ment, 88. 

must be fair and just, 89. 

must not be brutal, 99. 

must study child's interests, 103. 

must not allow impudence, 119. 

must have reserve work, 126. 

should teach politeness, 131. 

must know his own limitations, 

151- 
must not threaten or scold, 158. 
relation of to principal, 168, 282. 
in the matter of prizes, 177. 
burdens of, 178. 
judgment of in promotions, 191, 

202. 
in reviews, 204. 
relation to parents, 92, 205. 
must be prepared, 207. 
in assigning the lesson, 209. 
in questioning, 214. 
must himself be interested, 220. 
work of in the recitation, 223. 
how efiiciency of is determined, 

234. 
duty of to community, 245. 
duty of to school board, 248. 
duty of to his profession, 250. 
health of, 257. 
pedantry of, 258, 260. 
growth of, 259. 
choice of, 263. 
attitude of superintendent toward, 

266. 
freedom of, 269. 



INDEX. 



329 



Teacher, should make reports to su- 
perintendent, 273. 

should know hygiene, 285, 

should plan for the future, 289. 

should care for school property, 
294. 
Teachers, securing positions of, 25. 

of graded schools, 56. 

lack of permanency of, 290. 
Teachers' bureaus, 27. 
Teachers' meetings, character of, 

271. ' 
Temperance, influence of teacher, 

138. 
Temptation, must not be too great, 
78. 

must be considered, 88. 

not voluntary given, 119. 
Tests, character of, 201. 

advantages of, 202. 
Text-books, distribution of, 37. 

to be kept neat, 122. 

use of by Germans, 207. 

questions from, 214. 

use of, 224. 
Thoroughness, in study, 212. 
Three-grade plan, 61. 
Threatening, to be avoided, 158. 
Thuringian forest, Froebel in, 55. 

a trip through, 181. 
Training, of teachers, 12. 
Transportation, of pupils, 59. 
Trustee, attitude of to teachers, 12. 



Truthfulness, how taught, 127. 
must be in word and in deed, 159. 

Uniformity, of grading, 61. 
United States, Commissioner of Edu- 
cation of, 54. 
Unity, in school-work, 270. 
University, specialization in, 238. 
Unselfishness, of politeness, 130. 
in self-sacrifice, 153. 

Variety, with children, 218. 
Ventilation, teacher responsible for, 
18. 

discussion of, 297, 303. 

of old buildings, 307. 
Verrill, Prof., etiquette shown by, 

254. 
Virtues, school, 122. 
Visits, of superintendent, 277. 
Vulgarity, control of, 151. 

Warning, before making a rule, 71. 

before suspension, 95. 

compared with threatening, 158. 
Wartburg, trip to, 181. 
Washington, lessons from, 150. 
Watt, early character of, 104, 166. 
Whispering, treatment of, 114. 
Willard, Frances E., 150. 
Windows, of the school, 29, 300. 
Word, should be kept, 159. 



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